Module- II

Individual Behavior
 Contents

Individual Differences, Biographical Characteristics Concept of

Personality, Determinants of Personality and Types of
Personality, Theories of Personality, Perception & Perceptual
Process, Learning and Behavior reinforcement, values,
Emotions; Learning-Theories and reinforcement schedules,
Perception –Process and errors.
 Individual Behaviour

Individual behavior can be defined as a mix of

responses to external and internal stimuli. It is the way a
person reacts in different situations and the way
someone expresses different emotions like anger,
happiness, love, etc.
 Individual Differences

“Variations or deviations from the average

of the group, with respect to the mental or
physical characters, occurring in the
individual member of the group are
individual differences”
Types of Individual Differences:
1. Physical differences:
Shortness or tallness of stature, darkness or fairness of
complexion, fatness, thinness, or weakness are various physical
individual differences.
2. Differences in intelligence:
There are differences in intelligence level among different
individuals. We can classify the individuals from super-normal
(above 120 I.Q.) to idiots (from 0 to 50 I.Q.) on the basis of their
intelligence level.
3. Differences in attitudes:
Individuals differ in their attitudes towards different
people, objects, institutions and authority.
4. Differences in achievement:
It has been found through achievement tests that
individuals differ in their achievement abilities. These
differences are very much visible in reading, writing
and in learning.
Personal Biographic Factors

 Gender
 Age
 Education
 Abilities
 Marital Status
What is Personality?
Personality can be defined as those inner psychological
characteristics that both determine and reflect how a person
think and act in an environment.
The inner characteristics of personality are specific qualities,
attributes, traits, factors and mannerism that distinguish one
individual from other individuals.
Personalities are likely to influence the individual’s product
and store choices. They also affect the way consumer
responds to a firm’s communication efforts
Personality is a pattern of stable states and characteristics
of a person that influences his or her behaviour toward
goal achievement. Each person has unique ways of
protecting these states.
Personality is the fundamental and foremost determinant
of individual behaviour. It seeks to integrate
the physiological and psychological facets of an
individual to put them into action. Personality consists of
an individual’s characteristics and distinctive ways of
behaviour.
Relevant Videos on Personality

Who are you, really? The puzzle of personality | Brian Little | TED (15:16)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qYvXk_bqlBk

What is Personality? - Personality Psychology (13:46)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dcsc_EsJmsA
Determinants of Personality
The determinants of personality can be grouped in five
broad categories:
1. Biological Factors
2. Cultural Factors
3. Family Factors
4. Social Factors
5. Situational Factors
Biological Factors
The study of the biological contributions to personality may be studied
under three heads:
Heredity
Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception.
Physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle
composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are
characteristics that are considered to be inherent from one’s parents.
The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an
individual’s personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located
in the chromosomes.
Brain
The second biological approach is to concentrate on the role that the brain
plays in personality. The psychologists are unable to prove empirically the
contribution of the human brain in influencing personality.
Preliminary results from the electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)
research give an indication that a better understanding of human
personality and behaviour might come from the study of the brain.
Physical Features
A vital ingredient of the personality, an individual’s external appearance, is biologically
determined. The fact that a person is tall or short, fat or skinny, black or white will
influence the person’s effect on others and this in turn, will affect the self-concept.
Cultural Factors
Among the factors that influence personality formation is the culture in which we are
raised, early conditioning, norms prevailing within the family, friends and social
groups and other miscellaneous experiences that impact us.
The culture largely determines attitudes towards independence, aggression,
competition, cooperation and a host of other human responses.
According to Paul H Mussen, “each culture expects, and trains, its members to behave
in ways that are acceptable to the group. To a marked degree, the child’s cultural group
defines the range of experiences and situations he is likely to encounter and the values
and personality characteristics that will be reinforced and hence learned.”
Family Factors
Whereas the culture generally prescribes and limits what a person can be taught, it is the
family, and later the social group, which selects, interprets and dispenses the culture.
Thus, the family probably has the most significant impact on early personality
development.
A substantial amount of empirical evidence indicates that the overall home environment
created by the parents, in addition to their direct influence, is critical to personality
development.
The parents play an especially important part in the identification process, which is
important to the person’s early development.
• According to Mischel, the process can be examined from three different
perspectives.
• Identification can be viewed as the similarity of behaviour including feelings and
attitudes between child and model.
• Identification can be looked at as the child’s motives or desires to be like the model.
It can be viewed as the process through which the child actually takes on the attributes
of the model.
• From all three perspectives, the identification process is fundamental to the
understanding of personality development. The home environment also influences the
personality of an individual. Siblings (brothers and sisters) also contribute to
personality.
Social Factors
There is increasing recognition given to the role of other relevant persons, groups and
especially organisations, which greatly influence an individual’s personality. This is
commonly called the socialization process.
Socialization involves the process by which a person acquires, from the enormously
wide range of behavioral potentialities that are open to him or her, those that are
ultimately synthesized and absorbed.
Socialization starts with the initial contact between a mother and her new infant. After
infancy, other members of the immediate family – father, brothers, sisters and close
relatives or friends, then the social group: peers, school friends and members of the work
group – play influential roles.
Situational Factors
Human personality is also influenced by situational factors. The effect of the
environment is quite strong. Knowledge, skill and language are obviously acquired
and represent important modifications of behavior.
An individual’s personality, while generally stable and consistent, does change in
different situations. The varying demands of different situations call forth different
aspects of one’s personality.
According to Milgram, “Situation exerts an important press on the individual. It
exercises constraints and may provide a push. In certain circumstances, it is not so much
the kind of person a man is, as the kind of situation in which he is placed that determines
his actions”. We should therefore not look at personality patterns in isolation.
Types of Personality

1. Type A and Type B Personality

•Type A: Always in a hurry, competitive, and easily stressed.
•Type B: Relaxed, patient, and enjoys life at a slower pace.
2. The Big Five Personality Traits (OCEAN Model)
•Openness – Loves to try new things, creative.
•Conscientiousness – Organized, responsible, and careful.
•Extraversion – Outgoing, talkative, and energetic.
•Agreeableness – Kind, helpful, and friendly.
•Neuroticism – Gets nervous or upset easily.
3. Introvert vs. Extrovert
•Introvert: Likes quiet time, prefers small groups, thinks before
speaking.
•Extrovert: Loves socializing, outgoing, and enjoys being around
people.
4. Myers-Briggs Personality Types (MBTI)
This groups people based on four things:
•Are they quiet (Introvert) or social (Extrovert)?
•Do they trust facts (Sensing) or ideas (Intuition)?
•Do they decide using logic (Thinking) or feelings (Feeling)?
•Do they like plans (Judging) or prefer to be flexible (Perceiving)?
These combine into 16 personality types, like ISTJ, ENFP, etc.

5. Eysenck’s Three Personality Types

•Extraverted: Social and lively.
•Neurotic: Emotional and moody.
•Psychotic: Aggressive or impulsive behavior.
Theories of Personality
1️⃣
1 Trait Theory – "Born This Way"
• This theory says personality is made up of traits
(fixed characteristics).
• Example: If you are always friendly, honesty is
part of your personality.
• Big Five Personality Traits (OCEAN Model) is a
famous example.
2 Psychoanalytic Theory – "Hidden Feelings" (Freud)
2️⃣
 Sigmund Freud believed childhood experiences and unconscious thoughts
shape personality.
 He said personality has three parts:
o Id (Wants fun! – "Eat the cake!")
o Ego (The decision-maker – "One slice is enough.")
o Superego (Moral side – "Eating too much is bad.")

3️⃣ Humanistic Theory – "Be Your Best Self" (Maslow & Rogers)
This theory says people grow and improve over time.
Abraham Maslow gave the Hierarchy of Needs – we must meet basic needs
(food, safety) before reaching our full potential.
Carl Rogers said we all need love and acceptance to grow.
44️⃣ Social Learning Theory – "Monkey See, Monkey Do" (Bandura)
 This says we learn personality by watching others.
 If kids see kindness, they act kindly. If they see aggression, they
may copy it.
 Example: If your best friend is always calm, you might learn to stay
calm too!

5️⃣ Biological Theory – "It’s in Your Genes"

This says personality is mostly inherited (from parents).
Example: If both parents are adventurous, the child might be too.
Perception & Perceptual Process
Perception is how we understand the world around us
using our senses (seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and
smelling). It’s like how our brain translates what we see
and hear into meaning.
🧠 Example:
 You see a dog 🐶 → Your brain recognizes it as "cute and friendly"
→ You feel happy 😊.
 Someone waves at you 👋 → You understand they are greeting
you → You wave back!
The Perceptual Process:
Perception happens in 5 steps, like a journey from the eyes/ears to
the brain:
1
1️⃣ Stimulus (What You Notice) 🔍
•Something catches your attention (e.g., a ringing phone 📱).
2️⃣ Sensation (Your Senses React) 👀👂
•Your ears hear the sound, your eyes see the screen light up.
3️⃣ Attention (Focusing on It) 🎯
•You decide to pick up the phone (ignoring other sounds).
4️⃣ Interpretation (Understanding It) 🧠
•Your brain recognizes it as your friend calling.
5️⃣ Response (Reaction) 🎤
•You answer the call and start talking!
Why Is Perception Different for Everyone? 🌎

Everyone sees the world differently because of:

✅ Past experiences (Someone who had a bad
experience with dogs may feel scared, not happy).
✅ Culture & background (Different cultures see
gestures in unique ways).
✅ Emotions & Mood (If you're happy, things seem
brighter; if you're sad, they may feel dull).
 Learning & behavior reinforcement
• Learning is the process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, or behaviors
through experience, instruction, or observation. It leads to a lasting change
in behavior.

• Behaviour Reinforcement is a technique used to strengthen desired

behaviors. It is a key concept in operant conditioning, introduced by B.F.
Skinner.

There are two main types:

• Positive Reinforcement – Adding a reward to encourage behavior (e.g.,
giving praise for completing a task).
• Negative Reinforcement – Removing an unpleasant stimulus to encourage
behavior (e.g., turning off a loud alarm when a task is done).
Values
Values are core beliefs or principles that guide a person’s behavior
and decision-making. They define what is important, acceptable, and
meaningful in life. Values influence how individuals interact with
others and make choices in personal, social, and professional settings.

Types of Values:
1.Moral Values – Honesty, integrity, respect.
2.Social Values – Equality, justice, kindness.
3.Cultural Values – Traditions, customs, heritage.
4.Personal Values – Ambition, self-discipline, creativity.
5.Professional Values – Work ethic, responsibility, teamwork.
Values shape attitudes and behaviors, helping individuals and
societies function harmoniously
Emotions:
Emotions are complex psychological and
physiological responses to stimuli that influence
thoughts, behaviors, and experiences. They arise
from interactions between the brain, body, and
environment. Emotions can be categorized as basic
(e.g., happiness, sadness, anger, fear) or complex
(e.g., guilt, pride, jealousy). They play a crucial role
in decision-making, social interactions, and overall
well-being.
Learning
Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, behaviors, or attitudes
through experience, study, or teaching. It can be intentional (e.g., studying for a
test) or unintentional (e.g., learning from daily interactions).

Learning Theories
1.Behaviorism – Learning occurs through conditioning (stimulus-response).
1. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov): Associating a neutral stimulus with a
reflexive response.
2. Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Behavior is shaped by rewards and
punishments.
2.Cognitivism – Learning is an internal process involving memory, problem-solving,
and critical thinking (Piaget, Vygotsky).
3.Constructivism – Learners actively construct knowledge based on experiences
(Piaget, Bruner).
4.Social Learning Theory (Bandura) – Learning happens through observation,
imitation, and modeling.
Reinforcement Schedules (Operant Conditioning –
Skinner)
Reinforcement schedules determine how often a behavior
is rewarded:
1.Continuous Reinforcement – Reward after every
response (useful for learning new behaviors).
2.Fixed Ratio (FR) – Reward after a set number of
responses (e.g., bonus after every 10 sales).
3.Variable Ratio (VR) – Reward after an unpredictable
number of responses (e.g., gambling).
4.Fixed Interval (FI) – Reward after a fixed time period
(e.g., paycheck every two weeks).
5.Variable Interval (VI) – Reward after varying time
intervals (e.g., pop quizzes).
Perception
Perception is the process of interpreting sensory
information to understand and interact with the
environment. It involves selecting, organizing, and
interpreting stimuli received through the senses.
Process of Perception
1.Selection – Filtering sensory input based on relevance
(e.g., focusing on a conversation in a noisy room).
2.Organization – Structuring information using patterns,
similarities, or prior knowledge.
3.Interpretation – Assigning meaning based on past
experiences, expectations, and context.
Perceptual Errors:
1.Selective Perception – Focusing only on information that
aligns with pre-existing beliefs.
2.Halo Effect – Judging a person or situation based on one
positive trait.
3.Horn Effect – Opposite of the halo effect, where one
negative trait influences perception.
4.Stereotyping – Making assumptions about individuals
based on group characteristics.
5.Projection – Attributing one’s own traits or feelings to
others.
6.Perceptual Set – Expecting to perceive something in a
certain way due to prior experiences.