ANALOG CONTROL

SYSTEMS

CHAPTER II

SYSTEMS REPRESENTATIONS

Assoc. Prof. Savaş Şahin

2017-2018 SPRING
Mechanical-Electrical… Control Systems

How to model the system-plant?

How to Analyze the model?

How to Design a Controller?

How to redesign-tune?
Prepared from Prof. Dr. Cüneyt Güzeliş Lecture Notes
 Modeling (Art&Science)
• Select a model (model identification)
• Realistic (enough complexity)
• Simple (Occam’s razor & generalization)
• Find model parameters (parameter identification)
• Describe model errors
• Linearize nonlinear models
• One varies, either by trial-error or by an algorithm, model
parameters until dynamic behavior of model and plant match
sufficiently well
• An alternative approach for dealing with modeling problem is to
use physical laws (such as conservation of mass, energy and
momentum) to construct the model.
• Control relevant models are often quite simple compared to the
true process and usually combine physical reasoning with
experimental data.
Nominal model: An approximate description of
the plant used for control system design

Calibration model: A more complicated description

of the plant. It includes other features not used
for control system design but which have a
direct bearing on the achieved performance.

Model error: The difference between the nominal

model and the calibration model.
Details of this error may be unknown but
various bounds may be available for it.
 Classification of Systems

Classes of Systems

Distributed Parameter Lumped Parameter

(Partial differential/difference
equations, transmission line…) Deterministic Stochastic

Continuous Time Discrete Time

Linear Nonlinear

Time Varying Constant Coefficient

Non-homogeneous Homogeneous
(No external Input;
system behavior depends on initial conditions)
 Example Control Systems
 Mechanical and Electro-mechanical Control Systems
 Thermal (e.g. Temperature) Control System
 Pneumatic Control System
 Fluid (Hydraulic) Control Systems
 Complex Control Systems

 Industrial Controllers
• On-off Controllers
• Proportional Controllers
• Integral Controllers
• Proportional-plus-Integral Controllers
• Proportional-plus-Derivative Controllers
• Proportional-plus-Integral-plus-Derivative Controllers
 Mathematical Models
 State space models (In time domain.)
●Linearization
 Scalar differential equations (In time domain.)

 Black Box Approach (Input-Output Representation)

• Analysis and Design by measured data only
• Transfer Functions (Valid only for LTI systems.)
 In Laplace Domain
 In Fourier Domain

 Impulse Response

 Convolution Integral (In continuous time.)

 Block Diagrams (= Flow Graphs)

● Computer Analysis and Simulation

 General Analysis Approach for Control Systems
● Define the physical problem properly
● Define the system and its components

● Formulate the mathematical model

─ Newton’s laws: translational and rotational forces
─ Kirchoff’s laws: mesh and node equations

● List the necessary assumptions

● Write the differential equations for the model
● Put the equations in standard form
● Solve the equations for the desired variables

● Examine the solution for reasonableness

 Ideal Control System Elements
Element Type Physical Element Describing Equation Energy (E) or power (Þ)
Inductive storage Electrical Inductance v = L di/dt E = (1/2) L i 2
Translational spring dx/dt = (1/k) dF/dt E = (1/2) F 2 / k
Rotational spring ω = (1/k) dT/dt E = (1/2) T 2 / k
Fluid inertia P = I dQ/dt E = (1/2) I Q 2
Capacitive storage Electrical capacitance i = C dv/dt E = (1/2) C v 2
Translational mass F = M d 2x/dt 2 E = (1/2) M ( dx/dt ) 2
Rotational mass T = J dω /dt E = (1/2) J ω 2
Fluid capacitance Q = Cf d P/dt E = (1/2) Cf P 2
Thermal capacitance q = Ct dŦ/dt E = Ct Ŧ 2
Energy dissipators Electrical resistance v = iR Þ = i 2R = v 2 / R
Translational damper F = b dx/dt Þ = b ( dx/dt ) 2
Rotational damper T = bω Þ = bω 2
Fluid resistance Q = ( 1/ Rf ) P Þ = ( 1/ Rf ) P 2
Thermal resistance q = ( 1/ Rt ) Ŧ Þ = ( 1/ Rf ) Ŧ
 I. I/O Representations for Linear Systems
x(t) Linear System y(t)

• A system is linear iff additivity and homogentiy

If x1 (t) y1 (t) and x2 (t) y2 (t)

then k1 x1 (t) + k2 x2 (t) k1 y1 (t) + k2 y2 (t)

for all constants

k1 , k2
f (x+y) = f(x) + f(y)
Homogenity (Multiplicativity);

f (ax) = af(x) for all a.

I. I/O Representations for Linear Systems
x(t) Linear System y(t)

Example: Affine System

If x1(t) y1(t) = kx1(t) + b and

x2(t) y2(t) = kx2(t) + b
Let x3(t) =x1(t) + x2(t) y3(t) = k x3(t) + b =
k[x1(t) + x2(t)] + b
≠ y1(t) + y2(t)
System does not satisfy the additivity (superposition)
property, so it is not linear
 Impulse Response of LTI System

δ(t) LTI h(t)

System

h(t) completely characterizes the LTI system in the time

domain
x(t) LTI y(t)
System
∞ ∞
y(t) = ∫ x(τ) h(t - τ) d τ = ∫ h(τ) x(t - τ) d τ
-∞ -∞
y(t) = x(t) * h(t) = h(t) * x(t)
Let x(t) = u(t) and h(t) = e-atu(t), a>0, Find the response (Step
response!)
∞ ∞

y(t) = ∫t h(τ) x(t - τ) d τ= t∫ e-a τ u(τ) u(t- τ)d τ

-∞ -∞

y(t) = 0∫ e-a τd τ= -1/a e-a 0τ = -1/a (1 - e-at) u(t)

 Impulse Response of LTI System

x(t) LTI y(t)

System
Why do we use Fourier, Laplace and Phasor transforms?
Fourier Laplace Phasor

Transient + Steady State Transient + Steady State Steady State

Initial conditions does not Initial conditions might be ?

exist
Non-causal Causal ?

Energy should be Bounded or unbounded ?

bounded Analytical Ext. Theorm
Non-periodic ? ?
Nielson Ch17 + Sadiku Nielsson Ch 12 Nielsson Ch 10-11
Ch18
II. Linear Constant Coefficient Ordinary Differential Equation
Representation

By (Heaviside) differential operator 

Please check and read it carefully! Section 2.2 page on 15

from Ogata 5th Edition
 Example: Mechanical system

Assume the system is initially at rest: y(0-) = v(0-) = 0

• M dv(t) / dt + b v(t) + k ∫0-t v(τ)d τ = r(t) Integro Differential
Equa. in terms of velocity
• M d2y(t)/dt 2 + b dy(t)/dt + k y(t) = r(t) in terms of
displacement

• Homogenous solution vH (t) : r(t) = 0

• Particular solution: vp(t) = f [r(t)]
 Example: Electrical system

Write node equation without assuming circuit initially rest:

• (1/L) ∫0-t v(t)dt + i_L(0) + C dv(t)/dt + G v(t) = r(t)
Integro Differential Equa. in terms of current
• C d2v(t)/dt2 + G dv(t)/dt + 1/L v(t) = r(t) in terms
of flux

• Homogenous solution vh (t) : r(t) = 0

• Particular solution: vp(t) = f [r(t)]
 Machanical system vs Electrical system

Now comparing the above with that we have derived for the
mechanical system we find that,
• Mass (M) is analogous to Capacitor (C).
• Force is analogous to current I.
• Displacement (x) is analogous to flux (ψ).
• Coefficient of friction (B) is analogous to resistance 1/ R and
• Spring constant K is analogous to inverse of the inductor (L).
RLC Circuit Model of Electrical System

How many possible solutions for characteristic equation?

 III. State Space Model Representation
 Continuous time vs Discrete time systems

 LTI System
 Example 3.3
 Assume voltage v(t) is the output
 Apply Kirchoff’s Voltage and Current Laws
 Example
A separately excited dc motor
 va(t): Armature voltage
 (t): Output angle

• J: Inertia of the shaft

• _e: Electrical torque
• i_a: Armature current
• k1; k2: Constants
• R: Armature resistance
Application of principles
of physics

robot containing
several servo motors
DC Motor Example
A separately excited dc motor
 ea(t): Armature voltage
 m(t): Output angle
• J: Inertia of the shaft
• k1; k2: Constants
• R: Armature resistance
Solution of Continuous Time State Space Models

Find State Transition Matrix:

Then, the solution for state vector:

Solution of Continuous Time State Space Models
Homogenous Solutions of State Eqs

Lets take a sol. Power series

Solution of Continuous Time State Space Models
Non-homogenous Solutions of State Eqs
Solution of Continuous Time State Space Models
 Linearization
Nonlinear systems may be considered linear about an
operating point (x0 , y0) for small changes Δx and Δy.

• For y = mx+b, with y= y0 + Δy and x = x0 + Δx

y0 + Δy = m (x0 + Δx ) + b = m x0 + b + m Δx
such that Δy = m Δx
 Linearization
• More generally, a Taylor series expansion of the
nonlinear
characteristic can be made

y(t) = g [x(t)] = g (x0 ) + dg (x0)/dx (x - x0 )/1! +…

= y0 + m0 (x0 , y0) [x - x0]

the slope dg(x0)/dx = m (x0 , y0) at the operating point (x0 ,

y0) is sufficient for obtaining a sufficiently accurate small
signal linear model.
 Linearization

An operating point (equilibrium, in general any solution e.g. orbit.)

Ex;
 Linearization

Exp;
 Linearization
 Almost every real system includes nonlinear features
 However, many systems can be reasonably described, within
certain operating ranges, by linear models

An operating point (equilibrium, in general any solution e.g. orbit.)

Example: Inverted pendulum
y(t): Distance from some
ref.
(t): Angle of pendulum
M: Mass of cart
m: Mass of pendulum
l: Length of pendulum
f(t): Forces applied to
pendulum
Define _m := (M/m)
 IV. Laplace Transformation
 Laplace Transformation transforms linear constant
coefficient diff. equations, equivalently state equations
into algebraic equations
 Then, it becomes possible to define ratios of outputs
with respect to inputs
 That is, the transfer functions can be defined in the
Laplace domain further assuming zero initial conditions
Bilinear function should be satisfied!!!
For a continuous time signal y(t)
with 0- =< t < infinity
Laplace transform of y(t) is defined as:

And, the inverse Laplace

Transformation providing the
original signal is defined as:
IV. Laplace Transformation
IV. Laplace Transformation

Cauchy-Riemann Conditions so that G(s) is analytic

IV. Laplace Transformation
 IV. Laplace Transformation

f(t) should be finite function and satisfied Driechlecht Condition to

take Fourier Transform
IV. Laplace Transformation
IV. Laplace Transformation
 Laplace
transform
properties
Laplace Transform Table
Differential equations VS. Difference Eqautions
Differential equations are useful for relating rates
of change of variables and other parameters
VS
Difference equations are useful for relating the
evolution of variables (or parameters) from one
discrete instant of time (or other independent
variable) to another

Ohm's law can be written as a relationship between

voltage resistance R,and the time rate of passage of
charge through the resistor, that is, U= R(dq/dt)
VS
The compound interest law can be written as a difference equation
relationship between P (k) , the amount of money after k periods of
time, and P (k + 1), the amount of money after k + 1 periods of time,
that is, P (k + 1) = (1 + I ) P (k)
Example: Solve differential equations
using Laplace transform
 d2y(t)/dt2 + 4dy(t)/dt + 4y(t) = u(t)

With y(0-) = dy(0-)/dt = 0

 u(t)  U(s) = 1/s

 Use algebra, partial fraction expansion and Laplace

transform table

  Y(s) = 1/s(s+2)2 =
0,25/s–0,25/(s+2)–0,5/(s+2)2

y(t)= [0,25–0,25.exp(-2t)–0,5.t.exp(-2t)]u(t)
Example:
 Inverse Laplace transform
Nth order real pole
N

X(s) = N(s)/(s+a) N
= Σ Ai /(s+a) i

i=1

where Ai = [1/(N-i)!][d N-i

/ds N-i
{(s+a) N
X(s)}]
s = -a
example: X(s) = 1/(s+2)(s+1) = B/(s+2)+A1 /(s+1)+A2 /(s+1) 2+A3
3

/(s+1) 3 Control System Engineering_Norman S. Nise_6th Edition, page 38

B = (s+2) X(s) = -1

A3 = (s+1) 3
X(s)
s = -2= 1

A2 = d/ds {(s+1) X(s)} = d/ds {1/(s+2)} = -1/(s+2)

s =3 -1 2
= -1
s = -12 s = -1 s = -1
A1 = [1/2!] d 2/ds 2{(s+1) X(s)} = 1
s = -1

X(s) = -1/(s+2)+1 /(s+1) -1/(s+1) 2+1/(s+1) 3

x(t) = [-e –2t

+e –t
- te –t
+ (t 2/2) e –t] u(t)
Let distinct complex conjugate poles, find the inverse Laplace 
𝑠=−𝛼+ 𝑗𝑤 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠=−𝛼 − 𝑗𝑤