Al-Khawarizmi College of Engineering

Mechatronics Department

(0)
Engineering Materials, a Review
---- MCT516 ----
MSc. Course – Smart Materials and Applications
First Semester
2020 - 2021
Lecturer: Dr. Furat Ibrahim Hussein Al-Najjar
 Engineering Materials Definition

҉ Engineering Materials is the field

which concerned with inventing new
materials and improving previously
known by developing deeper
understanding of the relationship
between;
- Structure
- Composition
- Synthesis
- Processing
Historical eras of materials science

҉ Materials have had a profound

impact on the evolution of world
civilizations.

҉ The evolution of Engineering

Materials field began with humankind’s
use of naturally occurring materials.

҉ Historians have classified periods in

this evolution by the materials that were
the state-of-the-art during these periods.
Thus the vocabulary now contains
phrases like the Stone Age, the Bronze
Age, and the Iron Age. Each of these
eras is characterized by the material
 Engineering Materials Classification

Classification of
Engineering Materials
 Functional Classification of Engineering Materials

҉ Notice that metals, plastics, and

ceramics occur in different
categories.

҉ Main categories can be broken

down further into subcategories.
 Smart and Biomedical Materials Definition

Smart Materials: A smart material can sense and respond to an external

stimulus such as a change in temperature, the application of a stress, or a
change in humidity or chemical environment.
Usually a smart-material-based system consists of sensors and actuators that
read changes and initiate an action.

Biomedical Materials: Our bones and teeth are made, in part, from a naturally
formed ceramic known as hydroxyapatite. A number of artificial organs, bone
replacement parts, cardiovascular stents, orthodontic braces, and other
components are made using different plastics, titanium alloys, and
nonmagnetic stainless steels. Ultrasonic imaging systems make use of ceramics
known as PZT (lead zirconium titanate).
 Materials Based on Structure
Structure Scale Features
Porosity, surface coating,
~ > 10-4 m
҉ Both the composition and the 1 Macrostructure
(1000 nm)
internal and external micro-
cracks
structure of materials have a
~ > 10-8 to 10-6 m Average grain size, grain size
profound influence on their 2 Microstructure (10 – 1000 nm) distribution, grain orientation
properties and behavior. The and
~ 10 to 10 m other features related to
-9 -7

structure of materials can be studied 3 Nanostructure

(1-100 nm) defect in materials
or examined at five different Atomic arrangement:
Distinguish between
structure levels Short and Long
atomic ~ 10 to 10o amorphous (which have SRO)
-10 -9
4 order
arrangement m (1-10 A ) and crystalline materials
(SRO) & (LRO) (which have LRO)

Includes atoms configuration

and their arrangements which
~ up to 10-10 m constitute the building blocks
5 Atomic Structure
(1 Ao) of matters (from these
building blocks that is others
levels emerges).
Atomic Bonding

The Metallic Bond

 Atomic Bonding

The Covalent Bond

 Atomic Bonding

The Ionic Bond

 Atomic Bonding

Van der Waals Bonding

 Atomic Bonding

Mixed Bonding
 Atomic and Ionic Arrangements

҉ In different states of matter, we can find three types of atomic and ionic
arrangements:
1 - No Order: in gases atoms or ions have no orderly arrangement.

2- Non-Crystalline (or Amorphous) material: The arrangement of atoms extends

only to the atoms nearest neighbors such as water molecules (H 2O) where the
SRO is due to the covalent bonds between the H & O atoms. Amorphous solids
generally have isotropic (the same in all directions) properties.

3- Crystalline materials: The atomic arrangement extends over much longer

length scale ~ > 100 nm, where the atoms or ions in these materials form a
regular repetitive grid in thee dimensions. If the crystalline material consists of
one large crystal, it is called a Single Crystal material.
Atomic and Ionic Arrangements
 Polycrystalline Materials

҉ A polycrystalline material is compromised of many small

crystals, called grains, of random orientation in three dimensions.
The small grains grow and begin to impinge on one another
forming grain boundaries. the boarders between these grains.
҉ The properties of polycrystalline material is depend on the
physical and chemical characteristics of both grain and grain
boundaries.
The properties of single crystal material is depend on the chemical
composition and specific directions within the crystal.
҉ Most metals, alloys, semiconductors, ceramics and some
polymers have crystalline structure, where atoms or ions display
LAO.
 Single Crystal

҉ For a crystalline solid, when the periodic and

repeated arrangement of atoms extends throughout
without interruption, the result is a single crystal.

҉ The crystal lattice of the entire sample is continuous

and unbroken with no grain boundaries.

҉ Properties of crystalline materials often related to crystal

structure for example the quartz fractures more easily along
some crystal planes than others.
 Unit Cell

cubic
҉ A collection of points that are arranged in a tetragonal
periodic pattern and divide space identically orthorhombic
rhombohedral
into smaller and equally sized segments is hexagonal
called Lattice. monoclinic
triclinic.

҉ A group of atoms associated with these

points, is known as the basis. The crystal
structure is obtained by adding lattice to basis
(crystal structure = lattice + basis).

҉ The subdivision of a lattice that still retains

the overall characteristics of the entire lattice is
called Unit cell.

҉ By stacking identical unit cells, the entire The fourteen types of Bravais lattices
lattice can be constructed. grouped in seven crystal systems
 Lattice Parameters and Interaxial Angles
҉ The lattice parameters are the axial lengths or
dimensions of the unit cell and are denoted by
convention as a, b, and c.
҉ The angles between the axial lengths, known as
the interaxial angles, are denoted by the Greek
letters α, β, and γ.
 Metallic Structure
҉ Most of the common metals posses cubic or hexagonal structures only. The unit cell of
each different crystal has different placement of atoms.

҉ Body Centered Cube Structure (BCC): The unit cell contains one atom at each of its 8
corners and another atom at the body center.

҉ Materials of this type are α-iron (Fe- α below 910 °C), δ-iron (Fe-δ 1400 – 1539 °C),
tungsten W, vanadium V, molybdenum Mo and chromium Cr.
 Metallic Structure

҉ Face Centered Cube Structure (FCC): The unit cell contains one atom at the center of its
each face and one atom at each of its 8 corners. Each unit cell shares 14 atoms.

҉ Materials of this type are; γ-iron (Fe-γ 910 – 1400 °C), Copper Cu, silver Ag, gold Au,
Aluminum Al, Nickel Ni, Lead Pb and Platinum Pt. Ceramic crystals may also have such
structure.
 Metallic Structure
҉ Hexagonal Closed Packed Structure (HCP): Each unit cell contains one atom at each
corner of the hexagonal prism, one atom at each center of the hexagonal faces and three
more atoms within the body of the cell. Each unit cell shares 14 atoms and contains 3
atoms.

҉ Materials of this type are magnesium Mg, zinc Zn, titanium Ti, zirconium Zr, beryllium
Be and cadmium Cd.
 Coordination Number (CN) and Atomic Packing Factor (APF)

҉ The coordination number is the ҉ The sum of the sphere volumes of all atoms
number of atoms touching a particular within a unit cell (assuming the atomic hard-
atom, or the number of nearest sphere model) divided by the unit cell volume.
neighbors for that particular atom.
 Interstitial Sites
҉ In any type of crystal structures there are small holes between the usual atoms into which
smaller atoms may be placed. These locations are called interstitial sites and the atoms which
occupied them are called interstitial atoms.

҉ Interstitial sites are characterized by Coordination Number (CN), which is the number of
nearest neighbors to an atom in its atomic arrangement. It indicate how tightly and efficiently
atoms are packed together.

҉ The cubic site has CN of eight, octahedral sites have CN of six and tetrahedral sites have
CN of four.
 Points, Directions and Planes in the Unit Cell
҉ To locate certain points, such as atom positions, in the lattice
or unit cell by constructing the right-handed coordinate system.

҉ The number refers to the distance from the origin in terms of

lattice parameters.

҉ The coordinates are written as the three distances, with

commas separating the numbers.

Point Coordinates

Point coordinates for unit Coordinates of selected

cell corner are: 111 points in the unit cell. The
number refers to the
distance from the origin in
Point coordinates for unit cell center are:
terms of lattice parameters.
a/2, b/2, c/2 ½½½
 Directions in the Unit Cell
҉ Miller indices for directions are a shorthand notation to describe certain crystallographic
directions and planes in a material. Denoted by [ ], < >, ( ) brackets. A negative number is
represented by a bar over the number.
Direction A
1. Two points are 1, 0, 0, and 0, 0, 0
2. 1, 0, 0, -0, 0, 0 = 1, 0, 0
3. No fractions to clear or integers to reduce
4. [100]
Direction B
1. Two points are 1, 1, 1 and 0, 0, 0
2. 1, 1, 1, -0, 0, 0 = 1, 1, 1
3. No fractions to clear or integers to reduce
4. [111]
Direction C
1. Two points are 0, 0, 1 and 1/2, 1, 0
2. 0, 0, 1 -1/2, 1, 0 = -1/2, -1, 1
3. 2(-1/2, -1, 1) = -1, -2, 2
Determine the Miller indices of 4.
directions A, B, and C.
 Directions in the Unit Cell

҉ Crystallographic directions are used to indicate a particular orientation of a single

crystal or of an oriented polycrystalline material.

҉ Metals deform more easily, for example, in directions along which atoms are in closest
contact.

҉ Another real-world example is the dependence of the magnetic properties of iron and
other magnetic materials on the crystallographic directions. It is much easier to magnetize
iron in the [100] direction compared to the [111] or [110] directions. This is why the grains
in Fe-Si steels used in magnetic applications (e.g., transformer cores) are oriented in the
[100] or equivalent directions.

҉ The modulus of elasticity values is direction

dependent in the unit cell for different metals.
 Crystallographic Planes

҉ Certain planes of atoms in a crystal also carry particular significance. For example,
metals deform along planes of atoms that are most tightly packed together. The surface
energy of different faces of a crystal depends upon the particular crystallographic planes.
This becomes important in crystal growth. In thin film growth of certain electronic materials
(e.g., Si or GaAs), we need to be sure the substrate is oriented in such a way that the thin
film can grow on a particular crystallographic plane.

҉ Miller indices are used as a shorthand notation to identify these important planes.

҉ Crystallographic planes are specified by 3 Miller Indices (h k l). All parallel planes have
same Miller indices.
 Crystallographic Planes

z
example a b c
1. Intercepts 1 1  c
2. Reciprocals 1/1 1/1 1/
1 1 0
3. Reduction 1 1 0 y
a b
4. Miller Indices (110)
x

z
example a b c
1. Intercepts 1/2   c
2. Reciprocals 1/½ 1/ 1/
2 0 0
3. Reduction 2 0 0
y
4. Miller Indices (200) a b
x
 Crystallographic Planes
z
example a b c
1. Intercepts 1/2 1 3/4 c
2. Reciprocals 1/½ 1/1 1/¾ 
2 1 4/3
3. Reduction 6 3 4  y
 b
4. Miller Indices (634) a
x
Planes that are crystallographically equivalent have the same atomic packing.
Also, in cubic systems only, planes having the same indices, regardless of order and sign, are
equivalent.

Ex: {111} = (111), (111), (111), (111), (111), (111), (111), (111)

Ex: {100} = (100), (010), (001), (100), (010), (001)

 Crystallographic Planes

BCC Unit Cell with (110) plane FCC Unit Cell with (110) plane
 Isotropic and Anisotropic

҉ If measured properties are independent of the direction of measurement then they are
isotropic.

҉ The physical properties of single crystals of some substances depend on the

crystallographic direction in which measurements are taken.
For example, the elastic modulus, electrical conductivity, and the index of refraction may
have different values in the [100] and [111] directions. The directionality of the properties is
termed anisotropy and is associated with the atomic spacing.

҉ For many polycrystalline materials, the crystallographic orientations of the individual

grains are totally random. So, though, a specific grain may be anisotropic, when the
specimen is composed of many grains, the aggregate behavior may be isotropic.
 Isotropic and Anisotropic

Anisotropic
• Most engineering materials are polycrystals.

1 mm

• Nb-Hf-W plate with an electron beam weld. Isotropic

• Each "grain" is a single crystal.
• If grains are randomly oriented,
overall component properties are not directional.
• Grain sizes typical range from 1 nm to 2 cm
(from a few to millions of atomic layers).
 Single vs. Polycrystals

• Single Crystals E (diagonal) = 273 GPa - Many physical properties of crystalline

-Properties vary with materials are direction dependent because
direction: anisotropic. the arrangement of the atoms in the crystal
-Example: the modulus lattice are different in different directions.
of elasticity (E) in BCC iron:
- If one heats a block of glass it will expand
[100] E (edge) = 125 GPa
by the same amount in each direction, but
• Polycrystals the expansion of a crystal will differ
200 mm depending on whether one is measuring
-Properties may/may not parallel to the a-axis or the b-axis. For this
vary with direction. reason properties such as the elasticity and
-If grains are randomly thermal expansivity cannot be expressed as
oriented: isotropic. scalars.
(Epoly iron = 210 GPa)
 Allotropic (Polymorphic) Materials
҉ Some materials exhibit more than one type of crystal structure depending primarily upon
temperature and sometimes on pressure. Materials of such behavior are said to be allotropic
(for pure elements) and polymorphic (for compounds).

҉ At room temperature, iron has the BCC structure, but at higher temperatures, iron
transforms to an FCC structure. These transformations result in changes in properties of
materials and form the basis for the heat treatment of steels and many other alloys.
 Allotropic (Polymorphic) Materials
҉ Diamond and graphite are two allotropes of carbon: pure forms of the same element
that differ in structure.

Diamond
–An extremely hard, transparent crystal with
•tetrahedral bonding of carbon
•very high thermal conductivity Graphite
•very low electric conductivity. - A soft, black, flaky solid, with a
layered structure
–The large single crystals are typically used as
- parallel hexagonal arrays of carbon
gem stones atoms
–The small crystals are used to grind/cut other
- weak van der Waal’s forces between
materials layers planes slide easily over one
–diamond thin films in hard surface coatings another.
used for cutting tools, medical devices.
 Allotropic (Polymorphic) Materials

҉ White (or β) tin, having a BCT crystal structure at room temperature, transforms with an
extremely slow rate to gray (or α) tin, at 13.2°C, which has a crystal structure similar to the
diamond cubic crystal structure).

҉ White-to-gray tin transformation is accompanied

with an increase in volume (27%), and a decrease in
density (from 7.30 g/cm3 to 5.77 g/cm3). This volume
expansion results in the disintegration of the white tin
metal into a coarse powder of the gray allotrope.
Allotropic (Polymorphic) Materials
Metals
 Metals - Ferrous

Ferrous metals are based on iron; the group includes steel and cast iron.

Pure iron has limited commercial use, but when alloyed with carbon, iron has more uses and
greater commercial value than any other metal.

Alloys of iron and carbon form steel and cast iron.

Steel can is an iron–carbon alloy containing 0.02%to 2.11%carbon. Its composition often
includes other alloying elements as well, such as manganese, chromium, nickel, and
molybdenum, toenhance the properties of the metal.

Cast iron is an alloy of iron and carbon (2% to 4%) used in casting (primarily sand casting).
Silicon is also present in the alloy (in amounts from 0.5% to 3%), and other elements are often
added also, to obtain desirable properties in the cast part.
 Ceramics

҉ Most ceramics are inorganic compounds

between metallic and nonmetallic elements (e.g.,
Al2O3, NaCl, SiC, SiO2) for which the
interatomic bonds are either totally ionic, or ionic
having covalent character
(1) The metallic ions (cations) are positively
҉ The General Ceramic Chemical Formula: charged, because they have given up their

Am X p valence electrons to the (2) negatively charged

nonmetallic ions (anions).

Where: - A is Metal Atom, X is Nonmetal the anions are at the normal lattice points of a
Atom, m & p are atom ratio required to satisfy unit cell

charge neutrality. Since the metals cations are smaller than the
nonmetallic anions (such as oxygen) then they
tend to be located in the interstitial sites
produced by the crystalline arrangements of
anions
 Polymers
A polymer is a compound formed of repeating structural units called mers,
whose atoms share electrons to form very large molecules

Polymers usually consist of carbon plus one or more other elements, such as
hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and chlorine.
 Polymers - Molecular Structure
The physical characteristics of a polymer depends the molecular structure in which they
may be:, branched, crosslinked, or network.

linear - Long and flexible chains (like a mass of spaghetti),

- Have extensive van der Waals and hydrogen bonding between the
chains.
- Examples: polyethylene, poly(vinyl chloride), polystyrene,
poly(methylmethacrylate), nylon, and the fluorocarbons.

- Side-branch chains that connected to the main ones,

- The branches may result from side reactions that occur during the
synthesis of the polymer.
- The chain packing efficiency is reduced with the formation of side
branches, which results in a lowering of the polymer density.
Linear - Examples high density polyethylene (HDPE) is a linear polymer,
branched while low density polyethylene (LDPE) contains short chain
branches.
 Polymers - Molecular Structure

- Adjacent linear chains are joined one to another at various positions

by covalent bonds.
- The process of crosslinking is achieved either during synthesis, or
by a nonreversible chemical reaction, or by additive atoms or
crosslinked molecules that are covalently bonded to the chains.

- A polymer that is highly crosslinked may be classified as a network

polymer.
- Multi monomers forming three or more active covalent bonds,
make three-dimensional networks.
- These materials have distinctive mechanical and thermal properties;
the epoxies, polyurethanes, and phenol-formaldehyde belong to this
network group.
Polymers Classes
 Composite Materials
A composite material is formed from two or more materials or phases that are artificially
made. Where, the constituent phases must be chemically dissimilar and separated by a distinct
interface.

Many composite materials are composed of just two phases; the matrix, which is continuous
and surrounds the other phase, called the dispersed phase.

The properties of composites are a function of the properties of the constituent phases, their
relative amounts, shape, geometry and orientation of the dispersed phase.
 Composite Materials

concentrati size shape

on

Geometrical and
spatial characteristics
of dispersed phase
influence the
properties of
composites
distributi orientat
Composite Classes
 Composites - Particle-Reinforced Composites
For effective reinforcement, the particles should be small and evenly
distributed throughout the matrix.

the volume fraction of the two phases influences the behavior; mechanical
properties are enhanced with increasing particulate content.

Two mathematical expressions have been formulated for the dependence

of the elastic modulus on the volume fraction of the constituent phases for
a two-phase composite. These rule-of-mixtures equations predict that
the elastic modulus should fall between an upper bound represented by
E c ( u) = E m V m + E pV p

E m Ep
E c (l ) =
V m E p + VpEm
where E and V denote the elastic modulus and volume fraction,
respectively and the subscripts c, m, and p represent composite, matrix,
 Composites - Fiber-Reinforced Composites

A fiber-reinforced composite consisting of these fiber and matrix

materials exhibits the uniaxial stress–strain response

discontinuou
continuous discontinuou
s and
and s and
randomly
aligned aligned,
oriented
 Composites - Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Ff Ef Vf Stress-strain curve for an aligned
= fiber–reinforced composite that is
Fm Em Vm
exposed to a uniaxial stress
E cl = EmVm + EfVf applied in the direction of
alignment.

E m Ef
The fiber to be totally E ct =
VmEf + Vf Em
brittle and the matrix
phase to be reasonably
ductile
Where Ecl is the modulus of elasticity of a
continuous and aligned fibrous composite in
 Composites - Structural Composites
A structural composite is a multi-layered and normally low-density composite used in
applications requiring structural integrity, ordinarily high tensile, compressive, and torsional
strengths and stiffnesses. The properties of these composites depend not only on the
properties of the constituent materials, but also on the geometrical design of the structural
elements. Laminar composites and sandwich panels are two of the most commoncross-ply structural
Undirectiona
composites.
l
A laminar composite is composed of two-
dimensional sheets or panels (plies or laminae)
bonded to one another. Each ply has a preferred
high-strength direction, such as is found in
continuous and aligned fiber–reinforced polymers.

In-plane properties (e.g., modulus of elasticity

and strength) of unidirectional laminates are
highly anisotropic. Cross-, angle-, and
multidirectional laminates are designed to
increase the degree of in-plane isotropy;
multidirectional can be fabricated to be most
isotropic; degree of isotropy decreases with
angle- and cross-ply materials. angle-ply multidirectio
 Composites - Structural Composites

honeycomb core sandwich panel

SANDWICH
PANELS