EE16404 - ANALOG

CIRCUITS
UNIT I MULTISTAGE &
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS
• BIMOS cascade amplifier, Differential amplifier – Common mode and
Difference mode analysis –
• FET input stages – Advantages of negative feedback – voltage /
current, series , Shunt feedback –
• positive feedback using transistor.
UNIT II CHARACTERISTICS OF
OPAMP
• Block diagram of a typical op-amp – Ideal Op-Amp characteristics, DC
characteristics, AC characteristics, Differential amplifier – frequency
response of op-Amp; – inverting and non-inverting amplifier
configurations – circuit stability.
UNIT III APPLICATIONS OF
OPAMP
• Basic applications of op-amp – summer, differentiator and integrator,
V/I & I/V converters, Instrumentation amplifier, first and second
order active filters, comparators, clippers, clampers, peak detector,
S/H circuit, D/A converter (R-2R ladder and weighted resistor types),
A/D converter ( Dual slope, successive approximation and flash
types).
 UNIT IV OSCILLATORS &
WAVEFORM GENERATORS
• Condition for oscillations, phase shift – Wien bridge, Hartley,
Colpitts and Crystal oscillators.
• Waveform generators, multivibrator, Schmitt trigger, window detector
using op-amp.
UNIT V SPECIAL ICS
• 555 Timer circuit – Functional block, characteristics, monostable and
astable modes of operation;
• 566-voltage controlled oscillator circuit;
• 565-phase locked loop circuit functioning and applications,
• Introduction to IC voltage regulators and switching regulator.
TEXT BOOKS:
•David A. Bell ,”Electronic Devices and Circuits”, Prentice Hall of India,
2004.
•David A.Bell, ‘Op-amp & Linear ICs’, Oxford, 2013.
•D.Roy Choudhary, Sheil B.Jani, ‘Linear Integrated Circuits’, II edition, New
Age, 2003.
•Sedra and smith, “Microelectronic Circuits “ Oxford University Press,
2004.

REFERENCES:
•Floyd, “Electron Devices” Pearson Asia 5th Edition, 2001.
•Robert L.Boylestad, “Electronic Devices and Circuit theory”, 2002.
•Ramakant A.Gayakward, ‘Op-amps and Linear Integrated Circuits’, IV
edition, Pearson Education, 2003 / PHI. 2000.
Evolution of Electronic Devices

Vacuum Discrete
Tubes Transistors

SSI and MSI VLSI

Integrated Surface-Mount
Circuits Circuits

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov Chap 1 - 8

Microelectronics Proliferation
• The integrated circuit was invented in 1958.
• World transistor production has more than doubled every year for the past
twenty years.

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

Chap 1 - 9
Microelectronics Proliferation
• The integrated circuit was invented in 1958.
• World transistor production has more than doubled every year for the past
twenty years.
• Every year, more transistors are produced than in all previous years combined.
• Approximately 1018 transistors were produced in a recent year.

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov

Chap 1 - 10
Rapid Increase in Density of
Microelectronics

Memory chip density Microprocessor complexity

versus time. versus time.

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov Chap 1 - 11

Device Feature Size
• Feature size reductions enabled by
process innovations.
• Smaller features lead to more
transistors per unit area and
therefore higher density.

• SSI – small scale integration (< 102)

• MSI – medium SI (102- 103)
• LSI – large SI (103- 104)
• VLSI – very large SI (104- 109)
• ULSI & GSI– ultra large SI & giga-scale
integration (> 109)

NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov Chap 1 - 12

Analog Circuits
• Analog circuits are circuits dealing with signals free to vary from zero
to full power supply voltage.
• The most versatile and important analog integrated circuit is
the operational amplifier or op-amp.
• Essentially nothing more than a differential amplifier with very high
voltage gain
Analog circuits in modern systems
on VLSI chips
• Analog to digital conversion
• Digital to analog conversion
• Amplification
• Signal processing circuits at high frequencies
• Power management-
• voltage references, voltage regulators Oscillators, Phase locked loops
The last two are found even on many “digital” ICs
Analog vs. Digital

Figure 1. Analog signals take a continuum of amplitude values.

Digital signals take a few discrete amplitudes.
16
Differential amplifier
• Differential amplifier is a basic building block of an op-amp.

• The function of a differential amplifier is to amplify the difference

between two input signals.
 How the differential amplifier is
developed?

• Let us consider two emitter-biased circuits

• The two transistors Q1 and Q2 have identical characteristics.

• The resistances of the circuits are equal, i.e. RE1 = R E2, RC1 = R C2

• The magnitude of +VCC is equal to the magnitude of –VEE. These voltages are
measured with respect to ground.

• To make a differential amplifier, the two circuits are connected.

• The two +VCC and –VEE supply terminals are made common because they are
same.

• The two emitters are also connected and the parallel combination of RE1 and RE2
is replaced by a resistance RE.
• The two input signals v1 & v2 are applied at the base of Q1 and at the base
of Q2.

• The output voltage is taken between two collectors.

• The collector resistances are equal and therefore denoted by RC = RC1 = RC2.
Output Voltage
• Ideally, the output voltage is zero when the two inputs are equal.

• When v1 is greater then v2 the output voltage with the polarity shown
appears.

• When v1 is less than v2, the output voltage has the opposite polarity.
Differential Amplifier Configuration
The four differential amplifier configurations are following:

1.Dual input, balanced output differential amplifier.

2.Dual input, unbalanced output differential amplifier.
3.Single input balanced output differential amplifier.
4.Single input unbalanced output differential amplifier.
Dual input, balanced output
differential amplifier • Dual input, unbalanced output
differential amplifier.
• Single input balanced output • Single input unbalanced output
differential amplifier. differential amplifier
 Config-Contd
• These configurations are defined by number of input signals used and the
way an output voltage is measured.

• If two input signals are used, the configuration is said to be dual input,
otherwise it is a single input configuration.

• On the other hand, if the output voltage is measured between two

collectors, it is referred to as a balanced output because both the
collectors are at the same dc potential w.r.t. ground.

• If the output is measured at one of the collectors w.r.t. ground, the

configuration is called an unbalanced output.
Dual Input, Balanced Output Differential
Amplifier:
• v1 and v2 are the two inputs, applied to the bases of Q1 and Q2 transistors.
• The output voltage is measured between the two collectors C1 and C2 ,
which are at same dc potentials.
 D.C. Analysis:
• To obtain the operating point (ICC and VCEQ) for differential amplifier dc equivalent
circuit is drawn by reducing the input voltages v1 and v2 to zero.

• The internal resistances of the input signals are denoted by RS because RS1= RS2.

• Since both emitter biased sections of the different amplifier are symmetrical in all
respects, therefore, the operating point for only one section need to be
determined.

• The same values of ICQ and VCEQ can be used for second transistor Q2.

• Applying KVL to the base emitter loop of the transistor Q1.

DC Analysis Contd..

The value of RE sets up the emitter current in transistors Q1 and Q2 for a given value of VEE.
The emitter current in Q1 and Q2 are independent of collector resistance RC.
DC Analysis Contd..

The voltage at the emitter of Q1 is approximately equal to -VBE if the voltage drop
across R is negligible.

Knowing the value of IC the voltage at the collector VCis given by

VC =VCC – IC RC and VCE = VC – VE

VCE = VCC + VBE – ICRC (E-2)

From the two equations VCEQ and ICQ can be determined.

 Problem
• The following specifications are given for the dual input, balanced-output
differential amplifier
RC = 2.2 kΩ, RE = 4.7 kΩ, Rin 1 = Rin 2 = 50 Ω , +VCC = 10V, -VEE = -10 V, βdc =100
and VBE = 0.715V.
Determine the operating points (ICQ and VCEQ) of the two transistors.
The value of ICQ can be obtained from equation (E-1).
 Problem – Contd…
• The voltage VCEQ can be obtained from equation (E-2).

• The values of ICQ and VCEQ are same for both the transistors.
AC Analysis

• To find the voltage gain Ad and the input resistance Ri of the

differential amplifier, the ac equivalent circuit is drawn using r-
parameters.
• The dc voltages are reduced to zero and the ac equivalent of CE
configuration is used.
T-model(Small signal model of a transistor)

• ie = ib + ic

• ic = gm*vbe = ᵦib

• ie = vbe/re
AC equivalent of Differential Amplifier
AC Analysis
• ie1 = ie2. Therefore, resistance r'e1 and r'e2 are also equal and designated by r'e

• This voltage across each collector resistance is shown 180° out of phase with
respect to the input voltages v1 and v2. This is same as in CE configuration.

• The polarity of the output voltage is shown in Figure. The collector C2 is

assumed to be more positive with respect to collector C1 even though both are
negative with respect to ground.

• Step 1:
• Applying KVL in two loops 1 & 2.
AC Analysis
Step 2:
Substituting current relations ,

Step 3:
Again, assuming RS1/ᵦ and RS2/ᵦ are very small in comparison with RE and re'
and therefore neglecting these terms,
AC Analysis
Step 4:
• Solving these two equations, ie1 and ie2 can be calculated.

Step 5:

The output voltage VO is given by

VO = VC2 - VC1
= -RC iC2 - (-RC iC1)
= RC (iC1 - iC2)
= RC (ie1 - ie2)
Step 6:

Substituting ie1, & ie2 in the above expression

Thus a differential amplifier amplifies the difference between two input signals.

Defining the difference of input signals as vd = v1 – v2the voltage gain of the dual
input balanced output differential amplifier can be given by
Differential Input Resistance:
• The equivalent resistance that would be measured at either input terminal
with the other terminal grounded.

• This means that the input resistance Ri1 seen from the input signal source
v1 is determined with the signal source v2 set at zero.

• Similarly, the input signal v1 is set at zero to determine the input resistance
Ri2 seen from the input signal source v2.

• Resistance RS1 and RS2 are ignored because they are very small.
Differential Input Resistance:

Substituting ie1,
Differential Input Resistance:

• Similarly,
Output Resistance:

Output resistance is defined as the equivalent resistance that would be measured

at output terminal with respect to ground.

Therefore, the output resistance RO1 measured between collector C1 and ground
is equal to that of the collector resistance RC.

Similarly the output resistance RO2 measured at C2 with respect to ground is equal
to that of the collector resistor RC.

RO1 = RO2 = RC (E-5)

The current gain of the differential amplifier is undefined.

Like CE amplifier the differential amplifier is a small signal amplifier. It is generally used
as a voltage amplifier and not as current or power amplifier.
Problem
• The following specifications are given for the dual input, balanced-output
differential amplifier: RC = 2.2 kΩ, RB = 4.7 kΩ, Rin 1 = Rin 2= 50Ω, +VCC= 10V, -
VEE = -10 V, βdc =100 and VBE = 0.715V.
1.Determine the voltage gain.
2.Determine the input resistance
3.Determine the output resistance.
The ac emitter resistance

Therefore, substituting the known values in voltage gain equation (E-2), we obtain

The input resistance seen from each input source is given by (E-3) and (E-4):

(c) The output resistance seen looking back into the circuit from each of the two
output terminals is given by (E-5)
Ro1 = Ro2 = 2.2 k Ω
• In ideal DA ,the output voltage is proportional to difference between
two input signals
V0 α (V1 - V2 )-----1
Differential Gain Ad
From equation 1
V0 =Ad (V1 - V2 )
Ad is the constant proportionality
Vd = (V1 - V2 )
Ad = V0 / Vd -Differential gain
Common mode Gain Ac
•If the two input voltages are same then
•A d = 0
But output voltage of practical DA is not only depends on difference
voltage but also depends on the average of common level of two
inputs.
Vc = (V1 + V2 )/2
V0 =Ac Vc
The total output voltage is
V0 =Ad Vd + Ac Vc
Common mode rejection ratio
•The ability of a differential amplifier to reject a common mode signal is
expressed by its common mode rejection ratio (CMRR).
• It is the ratio of differential gain Ad to the common mode gain AC.
• FEATURES
1.High differential voltage gain
2.High i/p impedance
3.High CMRR
4.Large bandwidth
5.Low Common mode gain
6.Low offset voltage and currents
7.Low o/p impedance