THEORY

TOPIC 1 Solid Sphere Model

2 Plum Pudding Model

3 Nuclear Model

4 Planetary Model

5 Quantum Model
 ATOMIC THEORY TIMELINE

1803 1897 1911 1913 1920s

Solid Sphere Plum Nuclear Planetary Quantum

Pudding Erwin
John J.J. Ernest Niels
Dalton Thomson Rutherford Bohr Schrödinger
Atoms are dense and Atoms are described as Atom consists of a Electrons move in Electrons do not have
solid, with no internal uniform, positively small, dense, positively quantized, discrete definite orbits, but are
structure or subatomic charged spheres with charged nucleus at the energy levels around described by wave
particles considered. electrons embedded center, with electrons the nucleus and emit or functions that represent
within them, similar to orbiting around it, absorb energy when probability distributions
raisins in a pudding. similar to planets transitioning between of their locations.
orbiting around the sun. levels.
JOHN DALTON
1766 - 1844

• British chemist and physicist

• Proposed the Solid Sphere Model in the early 19th century

• Shifted from philosophical ideas to scientific theory

• First atomic model based on experimental evidence and
quantitative observations
• Paved the way for the development of modern atomic theories
SOLID According to this theory, atoms are tiny balls that can't be

SPHERE broken and are all made of the same material. This theory
helped explain how different chemicals mix together and

MODEL
what makes them different.

ATOMIC THEORY

1803
LIMITATIONS

• Couldn’t explain differences in atomic mass within an element

(isotopes)
• Didn’t account for the presence of subatomic particles like protons,
neutrons, and electrons
• Couldn’t explain the behavior of atoms in chemical reactions
 • English physicist known for his work on the nature
of electrons
• Proposed the Plum Pudding Model in the late 19th
century
• Cathode ray experiment

• Discovered electrons as distinct particles

• Shifted understanding from indivisible atom to
J.J. THOMSON subatomic particles
• Paved the way for further exploration of atomic
1856 - 1940
structure
PLUM According to this theory, atoms are like plum pudding, with
tiny positive charges scattered throughout a cloud of
PUDDING negative electrons. This theory helped explain why atoms
have a neutral charge overall and why they emit light when
MODEL they collide with each other.

ATOMIC THEORY

1897

LIMITATIONS
• Couldn’t explain why electrons didn’t collapse into the
positive sphere
• Failed to predict the distribution and arrangement of
electrons
• Lacked explanation for the nucleus and its positive charge
ERNEST RUTHERFORD
1871 - 1937

• New Zealand-born physicist known for his contributions to nuclear

physics
• Introduced the Nuclear Model in the early 20th century

• First model to propose a central, massive nucleus

• Explained the behavior of positively charged alpha particles in the
gold foil experiment
• Laid the groundwork for understanding atomic structure and
radioactivity
ATOMIC THEORY According to this theory, atoms have a nucleus with a
positive charge and most of the mass, surrounded by
1911 electrons that orbit like planets. It explains why particles
can pass through or bounce off atoms, and is the basis of
our current understanding of atomic structure.

NUCLEAR MODEL
LIMITATIONS
• Didn't explain the stability of the nucleus against
electrostatic repulsion
• Lacked details about electron orbits and energy levels
• Didn't incorporate the principles of quantum mechanics
NIELS BOHR
1885 - 1962

• Danish physicist known for his pioneering work in

atomic structure
• Proposed the Planetary Model in the early 20th
century

• Explained atomic spectra with precision

• Introduced the concept of quantized energy levels
• Bridged classical physics with emerging quantum
mechanics
ATOMIC THEORY
PLANETARY MODEL
1913
According to this theory, electrons orbit the nucleus
of an atom in specific energy levels or shells. This
theory helped explain why atoms emit light and why
they absorb certain colors of light. It also helped
explain the stability of atoms and why they don't fall
apart.

LIMITATIONS • Limited to explaining the hydrogen atom

• Couldn't account for the behavior of multi-electron
atoms
• Didn't incorporate the wave-like nature of electrons
ERWIN SCHRÖDINGER
1887 - 1961

• Austrian physicist renowned for his contributions to quantum

mechanics
• Proposed the Quantum Model in the 1920s

• Quantum mechanics provides a comprehensive understanding of

electron behavior
• Schrödinger's model successfully explains multi-electron atoms
• Quantum mechanics is the foundation of modern atomic theory
ATOMIC THEORY According to this theory, electrons exist as a probable
wave-like pattern around the nucleus, not in a specific
1920s orbit. It explains why electrons act like particles and
waves, and is the foundation of our understanding of
atomic structure and widely used in modern physics.

QUANTUM
MODEL
LIMITATIONS
• Mathematical complexity of the model
• Requires advanced mathematics to calculate electron
probabilities
• Doesn't provide a simple visual representation of atomic
structure
Time to test your knowledge of the

THEORY
 IF ATOMS ARE SOLID SPHERES, WHAT
QUESTION

WOULD HAPPEN IF YOU TRIED TO CUT ONE

IN HALF?
QUESTION IF ATOMS ARE SOLID SPHERES, WHAT
WOULD HAPPEN IF YOU TRIED TO CUT ONE
IN HALF?
ANSWER

In the Solid Sphere Model, atoms were believed to be indivisible, so you couldn't
actually cut one in half. It was thought that atoms were the smallest, fundamental
building blocks of matter.
 HOW WOULD YOU DESCRIBE THE
QUESTION

DISTRIBUTION OF "RAISINS" (ELECTRONS)

IN THIS ATOMIC PUDDING?
QUESTION HOW WOULD YOU DESCRIBE THE
DISTRIBUTION OF "RAISINS" (ELECTRONS)
IN THIS ATOMIC PUDDING?
ANSWER

In the Plum Pudding Model, the "raisins" (electrons) were thought to be scattered
throughout the positive "pudding" (atom). So, the distribution of electrons was
assumed to be relatively uniform within the atom.
 WHAT DID RUTHERFORD'S GOLD FOIL
QUESTION

EXPERIMENT REVEAL ABOUT THE ATOMIC

NUCLEUS?
QUESTION WHAT DID RUTHERFORD'S GOLD FOIL
EXPERIMENT REVEAL ABOUT THE ATOMIC
NUCLEUS?
ANSWER

Rutherford's gold foil experiment revealed that most of the atom's mass is
concentrated in a small, positively charged nucleus at the center. This discovery
overturned the idea of a uniformly distributed positive charge.
 WHY MIGHT ELECTRONS BE COMPARED TO
QUESTION

PLANETS IN A SOLAR SYSTEM WITHIN

BOHR'S MODEL?
QUESTION WHY MIGHT ELECTRONS BE COMPARED TO
PLANETS IN A SOLAR SYSTEM WITHIN
BOHR'S MODEL?
ANSWER

Bohr's Planetary Model drew an analogy between electrons orbiting the nucleus
and planets orbiting the sun. It simplified the complex behavior of electrons,
suggesting they had quantized energy levels like planets have orbits.
QUESTION

WHAT IS THE QUANTUM MODEL

QUESTION

WHAT IS THE QUANTUM MODEL

Schrödinger's cat is a thought experiment in quantum mechanics, not directly

ANSWER

related to electrons. However, it illustrates the probabilistic nature of quantum

systems, similar to how electrons are described by probability clouds in the
Quantum Model. The cat is in a superposition of states (both alive and dead) until
observed, much like electrons can exist in multiple states until measured.
THEORY in
focus
 1871 - 1937
ERNEST RUTHERFORD

• “Rutherford nuclear atom" and the "Rutherford Planetary Model”

• Gold Tin Foil Experiment or Geiger-Marsden experiment,

• In 1911, Rutherford described the atom as having a tiny, dense,

and positively charged core called the nucleus.
• Rutherford established that the mass of the atom is concentrated
in its nucleus.
• The light, negatively charged, electrons circulated around this
nucleus, much like planets revolving around the Sun.
Rutherford Atomic Model
1.The positive charge and most of the mass of an
atom is concentrated in an extremely small volume.
He called this region of the atom as a nucleus.
2.Rutherford’s model proposed that the negatively
charged electrons surround the nucleus of an atom.
He also claimed that the electrons surrounding the
nucleus revolve around it with very high speed in
circular paths. He named these circular paths as
orbits.
3.Electrons being negatively charged and nucleus
being a densely concentrated mass of positively
charged particles are held together by a strong
electrostatic force of attraction.
Limitations of Rutherford Atomic Model
• Calculations have shown that as per the Rutherford
model, an electron would collapse into the nucleus in less
than 10-8 seconds. So the Rutherford model was not in
accordance with Maxwell’s theory and could not explain
the stability of an atom.
• One of the drawbacks of the Rutherford model was also
that he did not say anything about the arrangement
of electrons in an atom which made his theory
incomplete.
• Although the early atomic models were inaccurate and
failed to explain certain experimental results, they
formed the base for future developments in the
world of quantum mechanics.
NIELS BOHR
1885 - 1962

• Danish physicist known for his pioneering work in

atomic structure
• Proposed the Planetary Model in the early 20th
century

• Explained atomic spectra with precision

• Introduced the concept of quantized energy levels
• Bridged classical physics with emerging quantum
mechanics
Bohr Atomic Model
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus in stable orbits
without emission of radiant energy. Each orbit has a
definite energy and is called an energy shell or energy
level.
• An orbit or energy level is designated as K, L, M, N
shells. When the electron is in the lowest energy level,
it is said to be in the ground state.
• An electron emits or absorbs energy when it jumps
from one orbit or energy level to another. When it
jumps from a higher energy level to lower energy level
it emits energy while it absorbs energy when it jumps
from a lower energy level to a higher energy level.
• The energy absorbed or emitted is equal to the
difference between the energies of the two energy
levels (E1, E2) and is determined by Plank’s equation.
Limitations of Bohr Atomic Model Theory
• It violates the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. The Bohr
atomic model theory considers electrons to have both a
known radius and orbit i.e. known position and
momentum at the same time, which is impossible
according to Heisenberg.
• The Bohr atomic model theory made correct predictions
for smaller sized atoms like hydrogen, but poor spectral
predictions are obtained when larger atoms are
considered.
• It failed to explain the Zeeman effect when the spectral
line is split into several components in the presence of a
magnetic field.
• It failed to explain the Stark effect when the spectral line
gets split up into fine lines in the presence of an electric
field.
ERWIN SCHRÖDINGER
1887 - 1961

• Austrian physicist renowned for his contributions to quantum

mechanics
• Proposed the Quantum Model in the 1920s

• Quantum mechanics provides a comprehensive understanding of

electron behavior
• Schrödinger's model successfully explains multi-electron atoms
• Quantum mechanics is the foundation of modern atomic theory
1887 - 1961
QUANTUM
MECHANICAL MODEL
1887 - 1961

• Louis de Broglie proposed that all particles could be

treated as matter waves with a wavelength \[\lambda\],
given by the following equation (See equation)
• Erwin Schrödinger proposed the quantum mechanical
model of the atom, which treats electrons as matter
waves
⚬ If particles like electrons can behave as waves, it
means that they don't have an exact position the way
we would imagine for a traditional particle. Quantum
mechanics tells us that you can't precisely know both
the position and velocity of an electron at the same
time.
QUANTUM
MECHANICAL MODEL
1887 - 1961

• An atomic orbital is defined as the region within an atom

that encloses where the electron is likely to be 90% of the
time.
• The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that we can't
know both the energy and position of an electron.
Therefore, as we learn more about the electron's position,
we know less about its energy, and vice versa
• Electrons have an intrinsic property called spin, and an
electron can have one of two possible spin values: spin-up
or spin-down.
• Any two electrons occupying the same orbital must have
opposite spins.
THE PROBABILITY
DENSITY
1887 - 1961

⚬ A measure of the likelihood (probability) that a particle

will be found at a particular location in space. In this
case, where you would likely find an electron in the
electron cloud.
THE PROBABILITY
DENSITY
SHAPES OF ATOMIC
ORBITALS
SAMPLE ELEMENT
ELECTRON SPIN: THE
STERN-GERLACH
EXPERIMENT

⚬ In 1922, German physicists Otto Stern and Walther

Gerlach hypothesized that electrons behaved as tiny
bar magnets, each with a north and south pole. To test
this theory, they fired a beam of silver atoms between
the poles of a permanent magnet with a stronger north
pole than south pole.
ELECTRON SPIN: THE
STERN-GERLACH
EXPERIMENT

⚬ These experimental results revealed that unlike

regular bar magnets, electrons could only exhibit two
possible orientations: either with the magnetic field or
against it. This phenomenon, in which electrons can
exist in only one of two possible magnetic states,
could not be explained using classical physics!
Scientists refer to this property of electrons as electron
spin: any given electron is either spin-up or spin-down.
We sometimes represent electron spin by drawing
electrons as arrows pointing up or down.
ELECTRON SPIN: THE
STERN-GERLACH
EXPERIMENT

⚬ One consequence of electron spin is that a maximum

of two electrons can occupy any given orbital, and the
two electrons occupying the same orbital must have
opposite spin. This is also called the Pauli exclusion
principle.
ELECTRON SPIN: THE
STERN-GERLACH
EXPERIMENT
ELECTRON
S IN AN
ATOM
ENERGY LEVELS

⚬ Energy levels (also called electron shells)

are fixed distancees from the nucleus of
an atom where electrons may be found.
⚬ Electrons can occupy one energy level or
another but not the space between energy
levels.
ENERGY LEVELS

⚬ The model in the Figure shows the first four

energy levels of an atom. Electrons in energy
level I (also called energy level K) have the
least amount of energy.
⚬ As you go farther from the nucleus, electrons at
higher levels have more energy, and their
energy increases by a fixed, discrete amount.
⚬ Electrons can jump from a lower to the next
higher energy level if they absorb this amount
of energy. Conversely, if electrons jump from a
higher to a lower energy level, they give off
energy, often in the form of light.
ENERGY LEVELS
THE OUTERMOST
LEVEL

⚬ Also known as “Valence Shell” part of an atom

⚬ Electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom
have a special significance. These electrons are called
valence electrons, and they determine many of the
properties of an atom.
⚬ An atom is most stable if its outermost energy level
contains as many electrons as it can hold.
THE OUTERMOST
LEVEL
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION
RULES

⚬ Aufbau Principle: lower energy orbitals fill

before higher energy orbitals.
⚬ Hund's Rule: one electron goes into each until
all of them are half full before pairing up.
⚬ Pauli Exclusion Principle: no two electrons
can be identified by the same set of quantum
numbers (i.e. must have. different spins)
PREDICTING THE
LOCATION AND
ARRANGEMENT OF
ELECTRONS IN THE
ENERGY LEVELS
THE QUANTUM NUMBERS

⚬ The set of numbers used to describe the

position and energy of the electron in an atom
are called quantum numbers.
⚬ There are four quantum numbers, namely,
principal, azimuthal, magnetic and spin
quantum numbers. The values of the conserved
quantities of a quantum system are given by
quantum numbers.
THE PRINCIPAL QUANTUM
NUMBER

⚬ The principal quantum number, n, designates

the principal electron shell. Because n
describes the most probable distance of the
electrons from the nucleus, the larger the
number n is, the farther the electron is from
the nucleus, the larger the size of the orbital,
and the larger the atom is.
THE ORBITAL ANGULAR
MOMENTUM QUANTUM
NUMBER
⚬ The orbital angular momentum quantum
number l determines the shape of an orbital,
and therefore the angular distribution.
⚬ The number of angular nodes is equal to the
value of the angular momentum quantum
number l.
⚬ Each value of l indicates a specific s, p, d, f
subshell (each unique in shape.)
⚬ The value of l is dependent on the principal
quantum number n
THE MAGNETIC QUANTUM
NUMBER

⚬ The magnetic quantum number ml determines

the number of orbitals and their orientation
within a subshell.
⚬ Consequently, its value depends on the orbital
angular momentum quantum number l.
⚬ Given a certain l, ml is an interval ranging from
–l– to +l+, so it can be zero, a negative integer,
or a positive integer.
THE ELECTRON SPIN
QUANTUM NUMBER
⚬ Unlike n, l, and ml, the electron spin quantum
number ms does not depend on another quantum
number. It designates the direction of the electron
spin and may have a spin of +1/2, represented
by↑, or –1/2, represented by ↓.
⚬ This means that when m is positive the electron
has an upward spin, which can be referred to as
"spin up." When it is negative, the electron has a
downward spin, so it is "spin down."
⚬ The significance of the electron spin quantum
number is its determination of an atom's ability to
generate a magnetic field or not
RESTRICTIONS
⚬ Pauli Exclusion Principle- a set of quantum numbers is specific to a
certain electron.
⚬ Hund's Rule-Orbitals may have identical energy levels when they
are of the same principal shell. These orbitals are called
degenerate, or "equal energy." According to Hund's Rule, electrons
fill orbitals one at a time.
⚬ Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle- According to the Heisenberg
Uncertainty Principle, we cannot precisely measure the momentum
and position of an electron at the same time. As the momentum of
the electron is more and more certain, the position of the electron
becomes less certain, and vice versa. This helps explain integral
quantum numbers and why n=2.5 cannot exist as a principal
quantum number.
SHAPES OF ATOMIC
ORBITALS
THE OUTERMOST
LEVEL

⚬ Also known as “Valence Shell” part of an atom

⚬ Electrons in the outermost energy level of an
atom have a special significance. These
electrons are called valence electrons, and they
determine many of the properties of an atom.
⚬ An atom is most stable if its outermost energy
level contains as many electrons as it can hold.