CELL

STRUCTURE,
ORGANELSS AND

CELL DIVISION
Aazad Suryan
 WHAT ARE CELLS ?
Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living
organisms.

IMPORTANCE
• Fundamental to life
• Basis for understanding biological processes, disease, and
biotechnology.
Two types of cells
PROCARYOTIC EUCARYOTIC
CELLS CELLS
Simple, no nucleus or Complex, with a nucleus
membrane-bound and organelles.
organelles

ATOMS CELLS TISSUES ORGANS ORGANIS

MOLECULES M
ORGAN
SYSTEMS
 Prokaryotic Cells
Simple Yet Essential

Nucleoid Region with circular

Plasma
Key Membrane
DNA
Controls substance
Features entry/exit
Provides shape and
Cell Wall protection (peptidoglycan in
bacteria).
70S ribosomes for
Ribosomes protein synthesis.

Flagella Aids movement (in

some).

Cytoplasm Gel-like matrix for

biochemical reactions.
 Eukaryotic
Key
Cells
Organised
Complexity Feature
s
Stores DNA Nucleus
Organell
Specialized
compartments for s
cellular functions.

Cytoskelt
Structural framework
aiding transport and on
division
Larger
10-100 µm.
Size
Difference between Pro and Eucaryotic cells
 Cytoplasm
Structure
The cytoplasm is an essential component of the cell
It is a semi-liquid jelly-like material
In the cell, the cytoplasm is embedded, while other cell organelles such as endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondria, ribosomes, vacuoles, etc. are all suspended within it

Functions
The major function of cytoplasm is to enable cells to maintain their turgidity, which enables the
cells to hold their shape
The cytoplasm is home to many activities of the cell as it contains molecules and enzymes that
can assist in metabolic activities
The whole cellular content of a living cell is called protoplasm. The cytoplasm, nucleus and all
other living components of the cell make up a cell’s protoplasm.
 1. Nuclear Nucleus
Envelope 2. Chromatin
• Double membrane separating the
nucleus from the cytoplasm. • DNA and protein complex that
• Contains nuclear pores to regulate the exists as loose threads in non-
exchange of materials like RNA and dividing cells.
3. • Condenses to form chromosomes
proteins.
Nucleoplasm during cell division.
• Gel-like substance within the nucleus.
• Provides a medium for the movement of materials
like ions, enzymes, and nucleotides.
4. Nuclear
Poles 5. Nucleolus
• Openings in the • Dense structure inside
nuclear envelope the nucleus.
that allow transport • Site of ribosomal RNA
of molecules (e.g., (rRNA) synthesis and
mRNA, ribosomal ribosome subunit
subunits). assembly.
 Nucleus - Functions
1. Stores genetic
Material 2. DNA Replication
• It is not just a storage compartment for
• The nucleus houses DNA, which DNA, but also happens to be the home of
directs all cellular activities. some important cellular processes (DNA
3. Ribosome Replication)
Synthesis 4. Cell Division
• Nucleolus produces rRNA and • Ensures accurate DNA
assembles ribosomal replication and proper
subunits. segregation during
mitosis/meiosis.

Examples:
• Mutations in nuclear DNA can lead to diseases like cancer (e.g., mutations in p53
gene).
• The nucleolus in the nucleus is like a "factory" that makes ribosomes, which are
needed to make proteins. Without it, the cell can’t grow or repair itself properly!
 Mitochon
The Powerhouses of the Cell
Structure
Function dria • Double Membrane:

• sATP (via glycolysis, Krebs

Produces
• Outer: Smooth, permeable.
• Inner: Folded into cristae for ATP
cycle, and
production.
oxidative phosphorylation).
• Matrix: Contains enzymes, DNA, and
• Regulates calcium levels. ribosomes.
• Plays a role in apoptosis (cell death). • Intermembrane Space: Critical for ATP
• Generates heat in brown fat cells. synthesis.

Unique
•
Features
Contains its own DNA and ribosomes
• Replicates independently of the cell.

Examples: Abundant in energy-demanding cells like muscles and

neurons.
 Ribosomes
Structure:
Ribosomes are one of the most important cell organelles composed of complex RNA
and protein
Which converts genetic code into chains of amino acids
It is composed of two subunits – smaller and larger
The smaller subunit is where the mRNA binds and is decoded, and in the larger
subunit, the amino acids get added
Functions:
• It assembles amino acids to form proteins that are essential to carry
out cellular functions
• Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis
• The proteins synthesized in the cytoplasm are utilized in the cytoplasm
itself, the proteins synthesized by bound ribosomes are transported
outside the cell
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a complex network of tubular membranes exclusively
present in the cytoplasm of the eukaryotic cell

Types of ER
Rough ER Smooth ER
The rough
endoplasmic The Smooth ER have
reticulum is named a smooth surface
so because of its
appearance
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Structure
• It is a series of connected flattened sacs having several ribosomes on its outer
surface
• It synthesizes and secretes proteins in the liver, hormones and other substances
in
the glands
• Rough ER is prominent in cells were protein synthesis happens
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Structure
• The smooth endoplasmic reticulum, on the other hand, does not
have ribosomes
• The smooth endoplasmic reticulum has a tubular form
• It participates in the production of phospholipids, the chief lipids in cell
membranes
Functions of Rough ER
• The majority of the functions of rough ER are
associated with protein synthesis
• The rough endoplasmic reticulum also plays a vital
role in protein folding (Secondary structure)

Functions of smooth ER
• Smooth ER is responsible for the synthesis of essential
lipids such as phospholipids and cholesterol
• Smooth ER is also responsible for the production and
secretion of steroid hormones
 Golgi
Functions
Structure Apparatus
• Modification: Alters proteins and lipids
• Flattened membrane-bound sacs received from the ER (e.g., adding sugar
called cisternae. groups to form glycoproteins).
• Two faces: • Sorting and Packaging: Prepares
• Cis Face: Receiving side materials into vesicles for transport.
(near ER). • Secretion: Directs vesicles to their final
• Trans Face: Shipping side destinations (e.g., plasma membrane,
(toward plasma membrane). lysosomes).
• Production of Lysosomes: Creates
vesicles containing digestive enzymes.

Examples:
• Cells producing
hormones (e.g.,
insulin in
pancreatic cells)
have abundant
Golgi.
 CELL
A N T
P L
 Chloroplasts
The Green Powerhouses
Structure
• Outer & Inner Membrane: Regulate
material flow.
• Thylakoids: Stacked into grana, contain
chlorophyll.
• Stroma: Fluid with enzymes for sugar
production.
Functions
• Photosynthesis: Converts sunlight into
glucose:
• Light Reactions: In thylakoids, produce ATP
and NADPH.
• Calvin Cycle: In stroma, uses ATP/NADPH to
make glucose.
• Oxygen Production: Releases O₂ as a
byproduct.
Fact - Has its own DNA and
ribosomes, supporting
the endosymbiotic theory.
 i so m es
Perox

Peroxisomes vary in shape, size and number depending on the

energy requirements of the cell

The main function of peroxisomes is lipid metabolism and the

processing of reactive oxygen species
In plants, peroxisomes facilitate photosynthesis and seed
germination
 Vacuole

The term “vacuole” means “empty space”. They help in the storage and disposal of
various substances. They can store food or other nutrients required by a cell to
survive. They also store waste products and prevent the entire cell from contamination.

Functions
A vacuole stores salts, minerals, pigments and proteins within the cell.
The solution that fills a vacuole is known as the cell sap.
The vacuoles are filled with water and exert force on the cell wall. This
is known as turgor pressure. It provides shape to the cell and helps
it to withstand extreme conditions.
 Cell Division
Types of Cell
Overview Division
What is Cell
Division ? Mitosis Meiosis
• The process by which
a parent cell divides • Produces two • Produces four non-
into daughter cells. identical daughter identical haploid
• Purpose: Enables cells (diploid). cells (gametes).
growth, tissue repair, • Occurs in somatic • Occurs in
and reproduction. (body) cells. reproductive cells
• Used for growth, (germ cells).
repair, and • Essential for sexual
replacement of old reproduction and
cells. genetic variation.

Key Steps in Both Types

• Mitosis: Skin cells dividing to
heal a wound.
• Meiosis: Sperm and egg
production.
 What is the Cell cycle
The Cell ?
Life’s Essential Process

Cycle • The series of stages a cell goes through to grow,

replicate DNA, and divide.
• Divided into Interphase and M Phase (mitosis +
cytokinesis). Phases of the Cell
Cycle
1. Interphase ( Preparation
Phase )
• G1 (Gap 1): Cell grows, produces organelles,
and prepares for DNA synthesis.
• S Phase (Synthesis): DNA is replicated,
ensuring daughter cells receive identical
genetic material.
• G2 (Gap 2): Cell prepares for division,
2.Mproteins
synthesizing necessary Phaseand ( Division
checking
Key Facts: for errors. Phase )
• Examples: • G1 is the longest phase;
• Rapid cell cycles in • Mitosis: Division of the
mitosis is the shortest.
skin cells for • The cell cycle ensures nucleus into two identical
regeneration. accurate division and nuclei.
• Errors in regulation • Cytokinesis: Division of the
prevents errors like
can lead to aneuploidy (abnormal cytoplasm to form two distinct
 Errors in Cell
Division
Definition:
Errors during mitosis or meiosis can lead to abnormalities in chromosome
Uncontrolled Cell
number, structure, or uncontrolled division, causing diseases or developmental
defects.
Aneuploidy Division:
• Abnormal chromosome number due to • Loss of regulation in the cell cycle leads to
improper segregation during meiosis or unchecked division.
mitosis. • Example: Cancer, caused by mutations in
• Example: Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome), genes like p53
Structural
caused by an extraChromosome
chromosome 21. Failure of
Errors Cytokinesis:
• Deletion: Loss of a chromosome • Results in multinucleated cells.
segment. • Example: Found in some muscle or
• Duplication: Repeated segments. cancer cells.
• Translocation: Fragment attaches to a
non-homologous chromosome. Impact
• Example: Chronic Myeloid Leukaemia
(CML) due to translocation between • Developmental defects,
chromosomes 9 and 22. infertility, or diseases like cancer.