Wireless Networks Technologies

1. Wi-fi (Wireless Fidelity)

-a wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to provide wireless high-speed
Internet access
Usage: Commonly used for local area networks (LANs) in homes, offices, and public spaces.
Frequency: Typically operates in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands.
Standards: Governed by IEEE 802.11 standards (e.g., 802.11ac, 802.11n, 802.11ax).
2. Bluetooth
-allows devices to communicate with each other without cables or wires
Usage: Used for short-range communication between devices like smartphones, speakers, and
headphones.
Frequency: Operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM (Industrial, Scientific, and Medical) band.
Range: Typically up to 100 meters, though it varies by Bluetooth version.
3. Cellular Network (1G-5G)
Usage: Mobile data networks for smartphones and mobile internet access.
Standards: Governed by various technologies like 3G (UMTS), 4G (LTE), and 5G (NR - New
Radio).
Coverage: These networks offer wide coverage areas, from urban to rural settings, and are used by
millions for voice and data communication.
Wireless Networks Technologies
4. Satellite Networks
Usage: Provide internet and communication services in remote and rural areas
where other types of networks are unavailable.
Communication: Uses geostationary satellites to relay signals to and from Earth.
5. NFC( Near Field Communication)
Usage: A short-range communication technology used for applications like
contactless payments, data sharing, and access control.
Range: Typically works within 10 cm (about 4 inches)
Examples: Contactless Payment Systems, Public Transport Fare Systems,
Smart Access Control Systems.
6. Zigbee
Zigbee -is an open standard protocol used on mesh networks for wireless
communication between smart devices at home, offices, hospitals.
light bulbs, sockets, plugs, motion sensors and other home automation
devices
Wireless Networks Technologies
7. Z-Wave operates at a lower frequency, which means it can't
transmit as much data as W-Fi, but it offers both significantly
increased range and better penetration than WiFi.
-Z-Wave is based on a closed network standard.
-Smart thermostats, smart locks, smart lighting, smart sensors,
smart plugs and outlets, and smart home hubs.
8. LoRaWAN (Long Range Wide Area Network)-Low Power
Long Range Network, is a wireless communication
protocol based on LoRa(Long Range) modulation. It is
designed to connect objects over long distances,
while minimizing energy consumption.
Wireless Networks Technologies
7. Z-Wave operates at a lower frequency, which means it can't
transmit as much data as W-Fi, but it offers both significantly
increased range and better penetration than WiFi.
-Z-Wave is based on a closed network standard.
-Smart thermostats, smart locks, smart lighting, smart sensors,
smart plugs and outlets, and smart home hubs.
8. LoRaWAN (Long Range Wide Area Network)-Low Power
Long Range Network, is a wireless communication
protocol based on LoRa(Long Range) modulation. It is
designed to connect objects over long distances,
while minimizing energy consumption.
Wireless Networks Technologies
9. Li-Fi: A newer technology that uses light to transmit data.
Unlike traditional wireless networks that use radio waves, Li-
Fi utilizes visible light (or infrared) to send information. It has
the potential to provide faster speeds than Wi-Fi, although it's
still in early stages of adoption.
 Mobile Network Protocols
-A protocol is essentially a set of rules that dictate how data is
formatted, transmitted, and received over a network.

-These rules ensure that different devices, networks, and

systems can communicate with each other efficiently and
securely.

-Protocols in mobile networks control how users can roam

across networks, how calls are routed, how data packets travel
over the internet, and how devices like smartphones connect to
mobile towers.

-Mobile communication would be chaotic and unreliable

without these protocols.
 Mobile Network Protocols
-There are various protocols used in mobile communication,
each designed to handle different aspects of network operation.
-Some protocols manage voice and SMS, while others handle
data transmission, network authentication, and security.

Here are some of the most important mobile network protocols:

1. SS7 (Signaling System No. 7)
-SS7 is a signaling protocol developed in the 1970s, widely used
in 2G and 3G networks for managing voice calls, SMS, and
other communication services.
-SS7 helps set up and tear down telephone calls, route
messages between network nodes, and manage network
interconnections between operators.
 Mobile Network Protocols
- However, SS7 is also known for its vulnerabilities. Attackers
can exploit SS7 to intercept messages, track subscribers’
locations, and perform other malicious activities. This makes
securing SS7 traffic a priority for modern telecom operators.
2. SIGTRAN derived signaling transport
- SIGTRAN is an SS7 extension that enables the
transmission of SS7 signaling messages across IP (Internet
Protocol) networks.
- SIGTRAN was created to help bridge the gap between
more recent packet-switched IP networks and more
conventional circuit-switched networks.
- It is important to seamless running of SMS and voice
services, particularly as networks switch to IP-based
infrastructure.
 Mobile Network Protocols
3. Diameter
- Diameter is a protocol used primarily in 4G (LTE) and 5G
networks for authentication, authorization, and accounting
(AAA).
- It replaces older protocols like RADIUS(Remote
Authentication Dial-In User Service), offering enhanced
security and scalability.
- Diameter is important in modern mobile networks, particularly
for handling roaming services, billing, and maintaining secure
access to network services.
- While Diameter is more secure than its predecessors, it is still
susceptible to certain attacks, such as cross-protocol correlation
(collecting diverse info from numerous protocols that travel
across signaling network) when combined with SS7.
- Therefore, telecom operators need to implement strict security
measures around Diameter-based traffic.
 Mobile Network Protocols
4. GTP (GPRS Tunneling Protocol)
- General packet radio service (GPRS) is essentially a packet-switching
technology that allows information to be transmitted via mobile
networks.
- GTP is another key protocol in modern mobile networks, responsible
for managing data transfer in GPRS, 3G, 4G, and 5G networks.
- GTP encapsulates data packets for transmission between the user’s
device and the core network, ensuring efficient handling of mobile data
sessions.
GTP has two main variants:
i) GTP-C (Control Plane): Manages the setup and control of data
sessions.
ii) GTP-U (User Plane): Handles the actual transmission of data packets.
- GTP is critical to mobile data services, securing GTP traffic from
attacks like Denial of Service (DoS) or brute force attempts is essential
for maintaining network reliability.
 Mobile Network Protocols
5. IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem)
-IP-based multimedia services including voice over LTE
(VoLTE), video calling, and instant messaging are supported by
IMS, a fundamental network architecture.
-SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) is one of the protocols that
IMS uses to create, alter, and end communication sessions.
-IMS is essential to allowing high-quality multimedia
communication in 4G and 5G networks.
 Mobile Network Protocols
Importance of mobile network protocols:

Seamless Communication: Protocols allow devices from different

manufacturers, operating across various network types, to communicate
seamlessly. For example, a user in one country can easily make a call or send a
text to a user in another country, thanks to globally standardized protocols.
Efficient Data Transfer: Protocols manage the flow of data across networks,
ensuring that information is transmitted efficiently and accurately. This is
crucial for maintaining the high-speed data services that modern mobile users
expect.
Security and Authentication: Protocols like Diameter and GTP-C play a
critical role in authenticating users and securing network access. Without these
protocols, networks would be vulnerable to unauthorized access, fraud, and
attacks like subscriber impersonation or location tracking.
Roaming Services: Mobile protocols are essential for enabling international
roaming, allowing users to connect to networks while traveling abroad.
Protocols like SS7 and Diameter ensure that roaming agreements between
operators function smoothly.
 Mobile Network Layers
-The Mobile Network Layer is a key component in mobile
computing that handles the routing and forwarding of data
packets between devices across networks.
-It is responsible for managing how data is transferred from a
source to a destination, considering the unique challenges posed
by mobile environments.
Here are the primary aspects and considerations for the Mobile
Network Layer:
 1. Routing and Forwarding

-The mobile node just puts the IP address of the fixed node in the
destination field of its IP packets while putting its permanent
address in the source field, and the packets are forwarded to the
fixed node using normal means.
-This layer is responsible for delivering packets form src to st host.
forwarding: move packets from router’s input to appropriate
router output (data plane does forwarding)
routing: determine route taken by packets from source to
destination (control plane does routing)
 1. Routing and Forwarding
Forwarding vs Routing
 1. Routing and Forwarding
Data plane vs control plane
Data plane
-local, per-router function
-determines which output port to forward for a given datagram
arriving at router’s input port
Control plane

network-wide logic
determines the end-to-end route from src to dst that this datagram
should travel
 1. Routing and Forwarding
- Destination-based forwarding considers dst IP address only when it
does lookup from the forwarding table (routing table).
-How does forwarding table look like?

-Longest prefix matching -is an algorithm where the router prefers

the longest prefix in the routing table, the most specific prefix.
1. Routing and Forwarding
 1. Routing and Forwarding
2n, is the number of values in which the bits in a binary word of
length n can be set, where each bit is either of two values.

192 (128+64) 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Binary 11 0 0 0 0 0 0
168 (128+32+8)
1(1)
45(32+8+4+1)
1. Routing and Forwarding
 1. Routing and Forwarding
Example 1
Imagine the router receives an IP packet with destination
192.168.2.82. In binary, the IP address looks like this:
Destination IP address Binary
192.168.2.82 11000000.10101000.00000010.01010010
The router has the following prefixes in its routing table:
Prefix Binary
192.168.2.80/29 11000000.10101000.00000010.01010000
192.168.2.64/27 11000000.10101000.00000010.01000000
192.168.2.0/24 11000000.10101000.00000010.00000000
All of the prefixes above match our destination IP address. If you look
closely at the bits above, you can see that 192.168.2.80/29 matches the
most bits with IP address 192.168.2.82. This is our “longest prefix” for
 2. IP Addressing
-The main problem that must be solved in providing mobile
communication using the IP protocol is addressing.
Stationary Host
-The original IP addressing was based on the assumption that a host is
stationary, attached to one specific network.
-A router uses an IP address to route an IP datagram.
-An IP address has two parts: a prefix and a suffix. The prefix associates a
host to a network.
-For example, the IP address 10.3.4.24/8 defines a host attached to the
network 10.0.0.0/8. This implies that a host in the Internet does not have an
address that it can carry with itself from one place to another. The address
is valid only when the host is attached to the network.
-If the network changes, the address is no longer valid. Routers use this
association to route a packet; they use the prefix to deliver the packet to
the network to which the host is attached. This scheme works perfectly
 2. IP Addressing
-The main problem that must be solved in providing mobile
communication using the IP protocol is addressing.
-The original IP addressing was based on the assumption that a host is
stationary, attached to one specific network.
-A router uses an IP address to route an IP datagram.
-An IP address has two parts: a prefix and a suffix. The prefix
associates a host to a network.
-For example, the IP address 10.3.4.24/8 defines a host attached to
the network 10.0.0.0/8.
-Mobile IP has two addresses for a mobile host: one home address
and one care-of address. The home address is permanent; the care-of
address changes as the mobile host moves from one network to
another.
-To make the change of address transparent to the rest of the Internet
 2. IP Addressing
-If the network changes, the address is no longer valid. Routers use
this association to route a packet; they use the prefix to deliver the
packet to the network to which the host is attached. This scheme
works perfectly with stationary hosts.
-The IP addresses are designed to work with stationary hosts because
part of the address defines the network to which the host is attached.
Mobile Hosts
-When a host moves from one network to another, the IP
addressing structure needs to be modified.
Several solutions have been proposed:
Changing the Address
-One simple solution is to let the mobile host change its address as it
goes to the new network.
 2. IP Addressing
-The host can use DHCP to obtain a new address to associate it with
the new network.
This approach has several drawbacks:
First, the configuration files would need to be changed.
Second, each time the computer moves from one network to another,
it must be rebooted.
Third, the DNS tables need to be revised so that every other host in
the Internet is aware of the change.
Fourth, if the host roams from one network to another during a
transmission, the data exchange will be interrupted. This is because
the ports and IP addresses of the client and the server must remain
constant for the duration of the connection.
 2. IP Addressing
Two Addresses
-The approach that is more feasible is the use of two addresses. The
host has its original address, called the home address, and a temporary
address, called the care-of address.
-The home address is permanent; it associates the host to its home
network, the network that is the permanent home of the host. The
care-of address is temporary. When a host moves from one network
to another, the care-of address changes; it is associated with the
foreign network, the network to which the host moves.
-Mobile IP has two addresses for a mobile host: one home address and
one care-of address. The home address is permanent; the care-of
address changes as the mobile host moves from one network to another
NB: Mobile Internet Protocol (Mobile IP) makes it possible for
devices to stay connected to the internet while moving between
different networks
 2. IP Addressing
Two Addresses
-The approach that is more feasible is the use of two addresses. The
host has its original address, called the home address, and a temporary
address, called the care-of address.
-The home address is permanent; it associates the host to its home
network, the network that is the permanent home of the host. The
care-of address is temporary. When a host moves from one network
to another, the care-of address changes; it is associated with the
foreign network, the network to which the host moves.
-Mobile IP has two addresses for a mobile host: one home address and
one care-of address. The home address is permanent; the care-of
address changes as the mobile host moves from one network to another
NB: Mobile Internet Protocol (Mobile IP) makes it possible for
devices to stay connected to the internet while moving between
different networks
 2. IP Addressing
Home Address and Care Address
 2. IP Addressing
Agents
-to make the change of address transparent to the rest of the Internet,
requires a home agent and a foreign agent.
- specific function as an agent is performed in the application layer,
they are both routers and hosts
 2. IP Addressing
Home Agent-The home agent is usually a router attached to the
home network of the mobile host. The home agent acts on behalf of
the mobile host when a remote host sends a packet to the mobile
host. The home agent receives the packet and sends it to the foreign
agent.
Foreign Agent-The foreign agent is usually a router attached to the
foreign network. The foreign agent receives and delivers packets
sent by the home agent to the mobile host.
-The mobile host can also act as a foreign agent, the mobile host and
the foreign agent can be the same.
However, to do this, a mobile host must be able to receive a care-of
address by itself, which can be done through the use of DHCP.
 2. IP Addressing
- In addition, the mobile host needs the necessary software to allow it
to communicate with the home agent and to have two addresses: its
home address and its care-of address. This dual addressing must be
transparent to the application programs.
-When the mobile host acts as a foreign agent, the care-of address is
called a colocated care-of address.
-The advantage of using a colocated care-of address is that the
mobile host can move to any network without worrying about the
availability of a foreign agent
 2. IP Addressing
Purpose: Provides a unique identifier for each device in the network.

Considerations: Mobile devices may frequently change their network

connections, requiring mechanisms like Mobile IP (MIP) or Proxy Mobile IP
 3. Mobility Management

Purpose: Handles the challenges of devices moving across different

networks or cells.
Considerations: Techniques such as handovers (process of
transferring connection from one channel to another), location
management, and seamless connectivity are crucial. Mobile IP allows
devices to maintain a permanent IP address while roaming across
different networks.
 3. Mobility Management
To understand issues in mobility management, we study personal
communication services network architecture.
 3. Mobility Management
-Visitor Location Register (VLR)- is a server in a cellular network that
supports roaming functions for users outside the coverage area of their
own HLR.
-A Mobile Switching Center (MSC)- is the central component of a
network switching subsystem (NSS), which switches calls between the
mobile and other fixed or mobile network users and helps to manage
roaming.
-Home Location Register (HLR)- a database that contains data regarding
authorized subscribers using a global system for mobile communication
(GSM) core network, contains details about each subscriber, including
their phone number, services subscribed to, and current location.
Mobile operators that deliver services on 2G and 3G networks will have
their own HLR. 4G and 5G networks have separate databases for the
same purpose.
 3. Mobility Management
Public Switch Telephone Network (PSTN) - switches functions nodes to
enable communication between two points on the network. After the call is
routed through multiple switches, users can place a call. Voice signals then
travel over the connected phone lines.
There two aspects of mobility in a PCS network:
i. Handoff- when a mobile user is engaged in conversation, the mobile
station (MS) is connected to BS via radio link. If the mobile user
moves to the coverage area of another BS, the radio link to the old BS
is eventually disconnected, and a radio link to the new BS is
established to continue the conversation. This process is called
handoff, automatic link transfer or handover.
ii. Roaming- When a mobile user moves from one PCS system (system in
new York) to another (Los Angeles) the system should be informed of
the location of the user, otherwise it would impossible to deliver
services to the mobile user.
 3. Mobility Management
To support mobility management, protocols such as
Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) and Electronic
Industries Alliance (EIA) interim standard 41(SI-41 or ANSI-41) or
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM).
 4. Handover Management
• When the phone is moving away from the area covered by one cell
and entering the area covered by another cell the call is transferred to
the second cell in order to avoid call termination.
• Purpose: Ensures continuous connectivity and data transfer as devices
move between different access points or cells.
• Considerations: Smooth handovers require coordination between
different network elements and protocols to minimize disruptions and
data loss.
Types of Handovers
a) intra-cell handover: the source and the target are one and the
same cell and only the used channel is changed during the
handover. Such a handover, in which the cell is not changed,
 4. Handover Management
b) Inter-cell handover: the source and the target are different cells.
-When the source and the target cells may be served from two different
cell sites or from one and the same cell site.
c) Hard Handover: An instantaneous handover in which the existing
connection is terminated and the connection to the destination channel
is made.
- It is also known as a break-before-make handover.
-The process is so instantaneous that the user does not hear any
noticeable interruption.
d) Soft Handover: A substantial handover where the connection to the
new channel is made before the connection from the source channel is
disconnected.
-This type of handover is very effective in poor coverage areas
 5. Quality of Service (QoS)
-The ability of the network to provide better or "special" service to a set
of dataflow to the detriment of other dataflow
QoS Parameters
• Flow data transfer.
• Transit time when transferring data.
• Residual error rate.
• Transfer Probability incident.
• Probability of failure of the network connection.
• Release time the network connection
 5. Quality of Service (QoS)
Flow Characteristics

• Reliability: Lack of Reliability means losing a packet or ack.

• Delay: Different applications can tolerate delay in different degrees.
• Jitter: Jitter is the variation in packets belonging to same flow.
• Bandwidth: Different application need different bandwidths.
 5. Quality of Service (QoS)
Techniques to improve the Quality Of Service (QoS)
a) Scheduling
i) FIFO Queuing
ii) Priority Queuing
iii) Weighted Fair Queuing
b)Traffic Shaping
i) Leaky Bucket
ii) Token Bucket
 5. Quality of Service (QoS)
a) Scheduling
i) FIFO Queuing
-Packets wait in a buffer (queue) until the node is ready to process them.
 5. Quality of Service (QoS)
a) Scheduling
i) Priority Queuing
- One of four priorities can be enforced for a QoS class: real-time,
high, medium, and low.
- Traffic matching a QoS policy rule is assigned the QoS class
associated with that rule
- Packets in the outgoing traffic flow are queued based on their
priority until the network is ready to process the packets.
- Priority queuing allows you to ensure that important traffic,
applications and users take precedence.
- Real-time priority is typically used for applications that are
particularly sensitive to latency, such as voice and video
applications.
 5. Quality of Service (QoS)
a) Scheduling
ii) Priority Queuing
 5. Quality of Service (QoS)
a) Scheduling
iii) Weighted Fair Queuing (WFQ)- is a network scheduling algorithm
used in packet-switched networks to manage the bandwidth allocation for
different traffic flows, ensuring fair and efficient use of network resources.
-It is designed to prioritize traffic flows based on their assigned weights
while also maintaining fairness across flows.
WFQ enhances QoS through:
• Fairness: The primary objective of WFQ is to allocate bandwidth fairly
between different traffic flows. It ensures that each flow gets its fair share
of the available bandwidth based on its weight, which could represent the
flow’s priority or allocated bandwidth.
• Weighted Priority: Unlike traditional round-robin queuing, where all
flows are treated equally, WFQ uses a weight for each flow. A flow with a
higher weight is given more bandwidth than one with a lower weight. This
allows for more flexible traffic management and prioritization.
 5. Quality of Service (QoS)
• Packet Scheduling: WFQ works by scheduling packets based on a
"virtual time" system. Each packet gets a timestamp, and these
timestamps are used to determine the order in which packets from
different flows are transmitted. The timestamp reflects the amount of
time a flow has been waiting for transmission.
• Flow Isolation: WFQ provides a form of isolation between different
flows. If one flow is heavily congested, it does not directly impact the
performance of other flows unless they are competing for the same
resources.
• Fair Queuing: The "fair" aspect of WFQ comes from its ability to
treat each flow in proportion to its assigned weight. It ensures that the
flow's weight influences its share of the network’s bandwidth,
meaning that higher-priority or higher-weighted flows are not unfairly
delayed.
5. Quality of Service (QoS)
 5. Quality of Service (QoS)
-WFQ uses a process of assigning each packet a virtual start time and
finish time based on the flow's weight and the amount of time it has
spent in the queue. The algorithm follows these steps:
• Assign a Virtual Time to Each Packet: Each packet from a flow is
given a timestamp based on the flow's weight and the number of
packets already sent by that flow.
• Compute Virtual Finish Time: The finish time is calculated as the
packet’s arrival time plus the time it takes to transmit it, adjusted by
the flow’s weight.
• Scheduling: Packets are then scheduled for transmission in order of
their finish times, with ties broken by their virtual start times.
• Transmission Order: The packet with the earliest finish time gets
transmitted next. This process ensures that packets from different
flows are transmitted in a manner that respects both the weight and
 5. Quality of Service (QoS)
b)Traffic Shaping
- In mobile networks, congestion occurs when data traffic exceeds the
available bandwidth and leads to packet loss, delays and reduced
performance.
- Traffic shaping can prevent and reduce congestion in a network.
- There are 2 types of traffic shaping algorithms:
i) Leaky Bucket
ii) Token Bucket
 5. Quality of Service (QoS)
i) Leaky Bucket
-the "leaky" part comes from the fact that tokens are allowed to
"leak" out of the bucket at a constant rate, typically when the rate of
incoming requests exceeds the defined rate.
- enforces a more rigid rate because it "leaks" tokens out at a
constant rate, preventing excessive bursts of traffic.
- this ensures that the system doesn't allow excessive bursts and
enforces a steady outgoing rate.
 How the Leaky Bucky Bucket Algorithm Works

• The bucket holds tokens, and they "leak" out at a fixed rate.
• When a new request or data packet comes in:
- If there are tokens in the bucket, the request is allowed, and the token
is removed from the bucket.
- If no tokens are available (the bucket is empty), the request is either
delayed or dropped.
• This ensures that there can be bursts of traffic, but only to a certain
extent — once the bucket reaches its capacity, the system won't allow
more traffic until the rate at which tokens leak out frees up space in the
bucket.
How the Leaky Bucky Bucket Algorithm Works
- The input rate can vary but the output rate remains constant. Similarly,
in mobile networks, leaky bucket technique can smooth out bursty
traffic. Bursts chunks are stored in the bucket and sent out at an
average rate.
 How the Leaky Bucky Bucket Algorithm Works

• Tokens are added to the bucket at a constant rate.

• The bucket has a maximum capacity, and when the bucket is full,
any additional tokens are discarded.
• Tokens are consumed when a request is made, and if there are no
tokens available, the request is either queued or discarded,
depending on the implementation.
 Token Bucket (Bucky Bucket)

• Token Bucket algorithm is a popular rate-limiting and traffic-

shaping mechanism used in computer networks, API rate limiting,
and other systems where controlling the flow of requests or data is
important.
• The algorithm ensures that traffic can burst up to a certain limit but
enforces an average rate over time, making it flexible for
applications that can tolerate short bursts of activity but require
overall control.
 How the Token Bucket Algorithm Works

• Tokens: Tokens are generated at a fixed rate (e.g., one token per
second) and placed in the "bucket.”
• Bucket: The bucket holds a limited number of tokens, and it has a
maximum capacity. Once the bucket reaches this maximum, any
additional tokens generated are discarded
• Token Consumption: Every time a request or data packet is sent, it
consumes a token from the bucket. If a token is available, the request
is allowed. If there are no tokens left, the request is either delayed or
dropped, depending on the system's configuration.
• Burst Handling: Since tokens accumulate over time, the Token Bucket
algorithm allows for bursts of traffic. For example, if a burst of
requests comes in and there are enough accumulated tokens, they
can be consumed quickly. If no tokens are available, the system may
either reject the request or buffer it until tokens become available.
How the Token Bucket Algorithm
Works
 6. Network Layer Protocols
• This layer defines how data packets are structured, addressed and routed
1. Internet Protocol (IP)
• IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): The most widely used version of IP, which uses 32-bit
addresses to identify devices on a network (approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses).
• IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): The newer version, designed to address the limitation
of IPv4 address space, uses 128-bit addresses, allowing for a vast number of unique
addresses.

128-bit (2128)= 40 trillion trillion trillion IP addresses.

2. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
• ARP is used to map 32-bit IP addresses (IPv4) to the corresponding MAC (Media Access
Control) addresses of devices on a local network. It is essential for local network
communication.
 6. Network Layer Protocols
3. Routing Protocols
-Routing protocols enable routers to exchange information about network
topology and reachability of different network destinations. Some of the
common routing protocols are:
• RIP (Routing Information Protocol): A distance-vector protocol that
uses hop count as the metric to determine the best route.
• OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): A link-state protocol that uses a more
complex algorithm to find the shortest path based on network topology.
• BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): A path-vector protocol used for
routing between different autonomous systems (AS) on the Internet.
• EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol): A hybrid
protocol that combines features of distance-vector and link-state
protocols.
 6. Network Layer Protocols
4. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
• ICMP is used for diagnostic and error-reporting purposes in IP networks.
It is crucial for tools like ping and traceroute, which help in
troubleshooting network connectivity and measuring network
performance.
5. IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol)
• IGMP is used by hosts and adjacent routers to establish multicast group
memberships. It plays a vital role in applications that need to send data
to multiple receivers simultaneously (e.g., streaming services).
6. IPsec (Internet Protocol Security)
• IPsec is a suite of protocols used to secure IP communications by
authenticating and encrypting each IP packet in a communication
session. It is commonly used for Virtual Private Networks (VPNs).
 6. Network Layer Protocols
7. Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)
• MPLS is a high-performance routing technique used in large-scale
networks. It assigns labels to packets, which allows routers to forward
data based on labels rather than IP addresses. MPLS improves speed
and efficiency in routing.
8. NAT (Network Address Translation)
• NAT is a technique used to map private IP addresses (typically within a
local network) to a single public IP address or a small pool of public
addresses. It helps in conserving public IP addresses and enhances
security.
 7. Address Resolution
-Address resolution is a crucial process in networking, enabling
devices to communicate by mapping IP addresses to MAC addresses.
ARP, along with its counterpart in IPv6 (NDP), helps ensure that
devices can find the appropriate physical addresses to route data across
the network. need for proper network security measures.
 8. Networking Congestion and Load Balancing
-In the context of computer networks, congestion and load balancing
are key concepts related to the performance, efficiency, and reliability
of data transmission.
-They aim to address challenges related to managing large volumes of
network traffic and optimizing the use of network resources.
Network congestion occurs when the demand for network resources
(such as bandwidth or processing power) exceeds the available
capacity, leading to a decline in performance, delays, packet loss, and
reduced reliability in communication.
Congestion is most often observed when too much data is transmitted
over a network, causing routers, switches, and other devices to become
overwhelmed.
 8. Networking Congestion and Load Balancing
-Load balancing refers to the distribution of network traffic across
multiple servers, links, or devices to ensure that no single resource
becomes overwhelmed.
Load balancing helps improve the availability, performance, and
reliability of a network by evenly spreading the workload. Congestion
is most often observed when too much data is transmitted over a
network, causing routers, switches, and other devices to become
overwhelmed.
 9. Security
• The security layer in mobile networks is essential to ensure that data
transmission, user privacy, and network integrity are protected from
various threats, including unauthorized access, eavesdropping, data
tampering, and service denial. Mobile networks, due to their wireless
nature and widespread use, face unique security challenges compared
to traditional wired networks.
• Security in mobile networks is typically implemented across multiple
layers of the communication stack, including the application, transport,
network, and physical layers. The 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership
Project) standard for mobile networks outlines many of the security
protocols used in different generations of mobile networks, such as 2G
(GSM), 3G (UMTS-Universal Mobile Telecommunication Service),
4G (LTE), and 5G.
 10. Interoperability
• The interoperability layer in mobile networks refers to the set of
protocols, standards, and interfaces that enable different systems,
devices, and network components to communicate and work together
seamlessly.
• It ensures that mobile devices, applications, and networks from
different vendors and technologies can function together within a
broader mobile ecosystem. This is crucial in global networks where
devices and services must be able to interact regardless of differences
in hardware, software, or network infrastructure.
 Data Dissemination and Broadcasting
Systems
• Data dissemination entails distributing and pushing data generated by
a set of computing systems or broadcasting data from audio, video,
and data services.
• The output data is sent to the mobile devices.
• A mobile device can select, tune and cache the required data items,
which can be used for application programs.
 Types of data dissemination
1) Unicast- This is one-to-one communication, where data is sent from
one sender to a single receiver.
• In this method, the sender sends the data packet to a unique IP
address, which is assigned to the destination device.
• The purpose of unicast communication is to enable one-to-one
communication between devices on a network. This is useful when
the sender wants to send data to a specific destination device,
without broadcasting the data to all devices on the network.
• For example, when you access a website, your computer sends a
unicast message to the web server requesting data, and the web
server sends a unicast message back to your computer with the
requested data.
 Types of data dissemination
• Example: Sending a message from one server to a single client over
the internet.
 Types of data dissemination
ii) Multicast- Multicasting refers to a method in computer networking
where a single source sends data to multiple recipients on a network
simultaneously.
Example: Video conferencing or live streaming to multiple
subscribers, where only those who are interested or have subscribed to
the multicast group receive the data.
- It uses a specific Class D IP addressing scheme (224.0.0.0 –
239.255.255.255) and is designed to reduce network traffic by
delivering a single video stream to multiple receivers efficiently.
 Types of data dissemination
• IP Classes
 Types of data dissemination
iii) Anycast- Anycast is a routing scheme in which a common address is
assigned to a group of computers. However, the sender only reaches
the computer that can be reached via the shortest route.
Example: DNS queries being routed to the nearest server in a content
delivery network (CDN).
 Types of data dissemination
iv) Broadcast-Data is sent from one sender to all possible receivers in a
network and data are accessible simultaneously by all clients residing
in the broadcast area. Example: A local network sending a message to
all devices connected to it (e.g., ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
requests).
 Broadcasting Systems
-These are the tools for distribution of audio or video content to a
dispersed audience via any electronic mass communications medium.
-These systems are typically used for delivering content to the public or
specific target groups and can involve various types of communication
channels, including radio, television, satelliteand internet.
 Types of Broadcasting Systems
i) Radio Broadcasting: Transmission of audio content to the public,
either AM (Amplitude Modulation), FM (Frequency Modulation), or
digital formats.
AM- continuous-wave goes on continuously without any intervals
FM-encoding info in carrier wave

ii) Television Broadcasting: Distribution of video and audio content,

either in analog or digital formats. This can be over-the-air (OTA),
cable, or satellite.
 Types of Broadcasting Systems
iii) Satellite Broadcasting: Using satellites to distribute signals, often for
television and radio, to a large geographical area.
iv) Internet Broadcasting: Streaming content (audio or video) via the
internet. This includes podcasts, live streams, YouTube, or any other
digital platform. (Streaming services, web casting and podcasting)

v) Cable and Satellite TV: These systems use coaxial cables or satellites
to transmit content directly to a subscriber’s receiver, often with
multiple channels.
 Components of a Broadcasting System
-Studio (Content Creation)-Where the media is produced, such as
television studios for shows, newsrooms for radio broadcasts, and
editing suites.
-Transmission Equipment- Includes transmitters, antennas, and other
equipment used to send signals to the audience. This may include
broadcasting towers for over-the-air signals.
- Distribution Networks: These include satellite, fiber optic networks,
or cable that carry signals from the studio to the audience.
- Receiver/End-User Equipment: Devices such as radios, televisions,
satellite dishes, set-top boxes, or smart devices that allow the user to
access the broadcasted content.
 Broadcasting Standards
Analog vs. Digital: Historically, analog was used for radio and
television broadcasts. However, most countries have moved to digital
broadcasting for better quality and more efficient use of frequencies.
Examples include DVB (Digital Video Broadcasting), ATSC
(Advanced Television Systems Committee), and DAB (Digital Audio
Broadcasting).
HD and UHD TV: High-definition (HD) and ultra-high-definition
(UHD) television broadcasting offer enhanced picture and sound
quality.
DAB+ (Digital Audio Broadcasting): An upgraded version of DAB,
offering better sound quality, more stations, and greater efficiency for
radio broadcasting.
 Emerging Technologies in Broadcasting
IPTV (Internet Protocol Television): Transmitting television
programming over internet protocol networks rather than traditional
terrestrial, satellite, or cable formats.
5G Broadcasting: With the advent of 5G, broadcasting may move
toward more immersive and interactive content, including VR and AR
experiences.
OTT (Over-The-Top) Services: These are internet-based services that
provide video, audio, and other content bypassing traditional cable or
satellite methods. Examples include Hulu, Amazon Prime Video, and
Disney+.
 Mobile Network Server and
Management
-Mobile network server management refers to the systems and
processes used to control and monitor mobile networks, ensuring that
they function smoothly, securely, and efficiently.

-It encompasses a variety of tasks, including configuration,

monitoring, performance management, fault detection, and
maintenance of mobile infrastructure.
 Mobile Network Server and
Management
Core Network Servers
This is the central part of the mobile network that manages routing
and data flow between devices and the internet. Core network
servers include the Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN), Gateway
GPRS Support Node (GGSN), Mobile Switching Center (MSC), and
Packet Gateway (PGW) in 4G/5G networks.
These servers are responsible for managing call setup, session
management, mobility management, and user authentication.
Mobile Network Server and
Management
 Mobile Network Server and Management
• This system provides a centralized platform for managing and
monitoring network performance, ensuring that the network operates
optimally and any issues are quickly addressed:
• Fault Management: Detects and resolves network problems, such as
server outages or connectivity issues.
• Performance Management: Monitors network performance metrics
like latency, throughput, and signal strength.
• Configuration Management: Manages network configurations,
updates, and changes to ensure consistency and efficiency.
 Mobile Network Server and
Management
• Security Management: Protects the network from unauthorized access
and malicious activities.
• Load Balancing: Mobile network servers must be able to handle
varying loads, especially in peak traffic times. Load balancing ensures
that traffic is distributed evenly across servers, preventing overload on
any single server and improving overall network performance and user
experience.
• Radio Access Network (RAN) Servers: These servers manage the
radio part of the mobile network. In the case of 5G, these are part of
the Next-Generation RAN (NG-RAN), whereas in 4G and earlier, it's
handled by eNodeB (LTE) or NodeB (UMTS).They handle functions such
as resource allocation, handovers, and load balancing between base
stations and mobile devices.
 Mobile Internet Connectivity
• Is the ability to access the internet using wireless data networks
provided by mobile carriers.
• This enables devices like smartphones, tablets, laptops, and other IoT
(Internet of Things) devices to connect to the internet on the go,
without the need for traditional wired connections.
• Mobile internet is typically accessed through cellular networks, which
have evolved over time, from 2G to 3G, 4G, and now 5G.
 Types of Mobile Internet Connectivity
Global system for mobile communication(GSM):for voice
communications and small data transfer
High speed circuit switched data(HSCSD):allows GSM for faster data
transfer(4 times)
General packet radio services(GPRS):to give increased data rates,
charging based on the amount of data transfer
Third generation(3G) mobile:increased data rates(maximum upto
2mbps) and wide range of services
Enhanced data GSM environment(EDGE): co-exists with GSM.
Allow GSM operators for 3G spectrum providing users a data rate
upto 554mbps
 Types of Mobile Internet Connectivity
Public access WLAN: enable users to access internet in localised
‘hotspots’ via a WLAN access card and a PDA or laptop

Linked public access WLANS : to link number of public access

WLANS for high speed access

Public access WLAN and mobile telecommunication convergences:

allows users / devices to swap between a telecommunication
technology (eg. GPRS, 3G) and PAWLAN to enjoy the highest
available data rate, depending on their geographical location