Topics on

Research
by
DR. ESMEN M. CABAL
Definition of research by several experts:

Kerlinger defines research as a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation

of natural phenomena guided by – theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations
among such phenomena.

Best and Kahn describe research as a systematic and objective analysis and recording of
controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles
or theories resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events.

Good defines research as a “careful, critical, disciplined inquiry, varying in technique and
method according to the nature and condition of the problem identified, directed
toward the clarification or resolution (or both) of a problem.”

Aquino has a more detailed definition of research. He says that “research is, simply, the
systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic of problem.”

Treece and Treece commented that “research in its broadest sense is an attempt to gain
solutions to problems.”

Research is a systematic, objective and comprehensive investigation of certain

phenomenon which involves accurate gathering and recording, and critical analyses and
interpretation of all facts about the phenomenon for theoretical or practical ends.
Purpose and Goals of Research

1) To discover new facts about known phenomena.

2) To find answers to problems which are only partially

solved by existing methods and information.

3) Improve existing techniques and develop new instruments

or products.

4) To discover previously unrecognized substances or

elements.

5) Discover pathways of action of known substances or

elements.
6) To order related, valid generalizations into systematized science.

7) To provide basis for decision – making in business, industry,

education,
government, and in other undertakings.

8) To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity.

9) To find answers to queries by means of scientific methods.

10) To acquire a better and deeper understanding about one

phenomenon that can be known and understood better by
research is why women are generally smaller than men.

11) To expand or verify existing knowledge.

Characteristics of the Researcher

1. Intellectual Curiosity.
A researcher undertakes reflective thinking and
inquiry of the things, situations and problems
around him. He is eager to get information on these
often due to novelty and unusualness. He raises
questions to seek answer, continues to read the
related literature, makes use of the experiences and
exercises his creativeness and inventiveness. When
the problem he confronts becomes clear, he
formulates and tests hypotheses on them. The
hypotheses may be rejected or accepted, depending
on his analysis of data and information gathered.
2. Prudence
There’s a saying that “Intellectual curiosity ends when
prudence begins.” When the investigator started with the
research problems, intellectual curiosity ends.
The researcher is prudent if he conducts his research study
at the right time and at the right place wisely, efficiently
and economically, using the 4 M’s (Man, Money, Machine
and Materials).

3. Healthy Criticism
The researcher is always doubtful as to the veracity of the
results.

4. Intellectual Honesty
An intelligent researcher is honest in collecting or gathering
the data or facts in order to arrive at honest results.
 Qualities of a Good Researcher
R – research oriented
E – efficient
S – scientific
E – effective
A – active
R – resourceful
C – creative
H – honest
E – economical
R – Religious
Characteristics of Research

1. Empirical – research is based on direct experience or

observation by the researcher. The collection of

data relies on practical experience without benefit
of the scientific knowledge or theory.
2. Logical – Research is based on valid procedures and
principles. Scientific investigation is done in an
orderly manner so that the researcher has
confidence on the results. Logical examination of the

procedures used in the research enables the

researcher to draw valid conclusions.
3. Cyclical – Research process is cyclical where it starts
4.Analytical – Research utilizes proven
analytical procedures in gathering the data.
5.Replicability – Research designs and
procedures can be replicated.
The more replications of researches the
more valid and conclusive the results would
be.
6.Critical – Research exhibits careful and
precise judgments depending on the level
of confidence on whether the hypothesis is
to be accepted or rejected.
General Types of Research
1. Pure Research or Basic or Fundamental or Theoretical.
This type of research aims to discover basic truths or principles.
It is intended to add to the body of scientific knowledge by
exploring the unknown to extend the boundaries of knowledge
as well as to discover new facts and learn more accurately the
characteristics of known without any particular thought as to
immediate utility.
2. Applied Research.
It is a type research that involves seeking new applications of
scientific knowledge to the solution of a problem such as the
development of a new system or procedure, new device or
new method in order to solve the problem.
3. Action Research.
It is a decision-oriented research involving the application of
the steps of the scientific method in response to an immediate
need to improve existing practices.
The Research Process

The research process involves several stages. The order of these stages should be
followed, particularly by the beginner in research, because the succeeding stage is
defined or determined by the preceding stage.

Basically, the research process begins with the identification of a research problem. With
an identified research problem, the researcher reviews literature which are related to
the problem to familiarize himself with the concepts, procedures and findings which
have bearings on his problem and to help him in formulating and refining his research
objectives, hypotheses, framework and procedures. He then formulates the objectives or
goals of the study. Using the study objectives as bases, he formulates hypotheses if the
study (such as relational and causal studies) so requires. He also formulates assumptions
on which to anchor his study. He then adopts or constructs a theoretical and/ or
conceptual framework or paradigm, bearing in mind the nature of the problem and the
objectives of the study. The next task is for him to decide which research design is most
appropriate to the study. This is followed by the collection of data with the use of
strategy and instrument which befit the nature of the problem and in consideration of
the target population and respondents and the resources involved. Having collected the
needed data the researcher then proceeds to processing the data, either manually or
with the use of machine, from their raw form to that which facilitates and expedites
analyses. He then moves on to analyzing and interpreting the results which are usually
statistics presented in tabular form. Finally, he writes the research report remembering
to remain faithful to the process undergone and to be objective in reporting what the
data tell and imply.
The number of stages in the research process presented here is not standard of
true for all scientific investigations. Some researchers may have less
requirements as in the case of exploratory studies which do not require
hypotheses or those which do not demand for the theoretical or conceptual
framework. Some studies may require more activities, depending on their
nature and goal or on scientific and practical demands. For example, a study
may involve an implementation of an intervention (a stage to be added in the
process) for some considerable length of time before the data relevant to the
study are gathered and processed. Another example is an investigation which
calls for the participation of some agencies whose staff may be asked to
undergo some training, an additional stage in the research process.

Finally, it should be noted that each of the stages in the research process is
dependent upon the others (Bailey, 1987). The problem that has been identified
will determine the objectives of the study which, in turn, will define the study
hypotheses, study framework, research design, data collection and processing
methods, data analyses and interpretation. It should be remembered that even
in the problem conceptualization stage of the research process, the subsequent
activities should be taken into account, foreseeing and providing measures for
certain difficulties. Failure to do so may result in poor quality of the research
result or it may even jeopardize the completion of the study. It should be clear
at this point then, that research is a system of interrelated stages.
 BASIC STAGES IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Problem Identification

Review of Related Literature

Objectives Formulation

Formulation of Hypotheses and Assumptions

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework Construction

Research Design Selection

Data Collection

Data Processing

Data Analysis and Interpretation

Report Writing
The Research Problem

A problem – is any significant, perplexing and challenging situation, real

or artificial, the solution of which requires reflective thinking.
– a perplexing situation after it has been translated into a question or series of
questions that help determine the direction of subsequent inquiry.

Elements of a Research Problem

1) Aim or purpose of the problem for the investigation. This answers the
question “why?”
2) The Subject Matter or topic to be investigated. This answers the
question “what?”
3) The place or locale where the research is to be conducted. This
answers the question “where?”
4) The period or time of the study during which the data are to be
gathered. This answers the question “when?”
5) Population or universe from whom the data are to be collected. This
answer the question “who?” or “for whom?”
Importance of a research problem
– it is the foundation of the activity to be conducted.
– it determines the type of study design, sampling strategy, instrument and type
of analysis.

Sources of Research Problems

• People – individuals, organizations, group, communities
• Problem – issues, situations, needs, associations, population,
composition, profiles
• Program – contents, structure, outcomes, attributes, satisfaction,
consumers, service providers
• Phenomenon – cause and effect relationships, phenomenon itself

Other Sources
1) actual problems encountered
2) technological changes and curricular developments
3) consultation
4) specialization
5) existing practices and needs
Considerations in Selecting a Research Problem

1) interest
2) magnitude – sufficient knowledge about the research process
3) measurement of concepts
4) level of expertise
5) relevance
6) availability of data
7) ethical issues
– keep data that are sensitive and private confidential
8) consider hazards involved

Characteristics of a Research Problem

S – Specific
M – Measurable
A – Achievable
R – Realistic
T – Time-bound
Criteria of a Good Research Problem
1) interesting
2) relevant to the needs of people
3) innovative
4) cost effective
5) measurable and time-bound

The Research Title

Guidelines in writing the title:
1) Generally, the title is formulated. It may be revised and refined later.
2) The title must contain the subject matter of the study, the population
involved, and the period when the data were gathered or will be gathered.
3) It must be broad enough to include all aspects of the subject matter for study.
4) It must be brief and concise as possible.
5) Avoid using the terms “An Analysis of”, “A Study of”, “An Investigation of”, and
this like. All these things are understood to have been done or to be done
when a research is conducted.
6) If the title contains more than one line, it must be written like an inverted
pyramid, all words in capital letters.
Hypothesis

This is understood as:

a statement of what one expects to find;
a statement to be proven;
an initial answer to the research questions;
a common sense statement;
an expected relationship between variables;
an explanation of the phenomena;
a statement of patterns of behavior.
Forms of Hypothesis

1) Null hypothesis. This says “there is no difference,” meaning the independent

variable does not affect the dependent variable. If data reject the null
hypothesis, then the alternative hypothesis should be true.
2) Alternative hypothesis. This says “there is a difference,” meaning, that the
independent variable affects the dependent variable. The alternative hypothesis
serves as the real concern of the research. It is a definite statement of the
relationship between variables. This is what the research hopes to determine.
A hypothesis is a statement about expected relationships between two or more
variables which permit empirical testing (Fisher and others, 1991; Bailey, 1987).
To Best and Kahn (1989), research or scientific hypothesis refers to “a formal
affirmative statement predicting a single research outcome, a tentative
explanation of the relationship between two or more variables.” Selltiz and
others (1976) also defined hypothesis as a tentative explanation of a relationship
but they added that it could also be a supposition that relationship may exist.
They further said that hypothesis generates an empirical study which seeks to
confirm or disconfirm it. Leedy (1980) explains hypothesis as a tentative
proposition set forth as a possible explanation for an occurrence of a provisional
conjecture to assist in guiding the investigation of a problem. Mouly (1978) refers
to hypothesis as a tentative generalization concerning the relationship between
two or more variables of critical interest in the solution of a problem under
investigation.
Characteristics of Good Hypothesis

For hypotheses to be considered sound or good, they must possess four major
characteristics (Best and Kahn, 1989).

First, it should be reasonable in that they are offshoots or results of critical though
tentative judgment or explanation of a phenomenon. They have been formulated
with valid basis.

Second, it should be stated in such a way that it is testable and found to be probably
true or probably false. With the use of statistical tools, it would be known whether
there is relationship or difference between two or more variables, or whether a
variable has influence or effect on another.

Third, it should conform with known facts or theories. If a related study disclosed
that Filipinos in general favor democracy over communism, it would be without any
basis to predict that ethnic groups like Ilongos and Cebuanos have favorable attitude
towards communism.

Fourth, it should be stated in the simplest possible terms. Hypotheses which use not
easily-understood terms and complex statements may cloud the issue and may result
to misunderstanding and presentation and analysis of data which are not required
nor relevant to the study.
Uses
Aside from making the research problem or objectives explicit or more specific,
hypotheses serve the following functions:

1) they provide guide and directions to the research,

2) they indicate the major independent and dependent variables being considered,
3) they suggest the type of data that must be collected,
4) they also suggest the type of analyses that must be made, and
5) they indicate the type of statistical measures appropriate to various tests to be
conducted.

From the point of view of Cohen and Manion (1980), there are principally four
reasons for the importance of hypotheses as tools of research.

First, they organize the effort of the researcher. The relationships expressed in the
hypotheses indicate what he should do. They enable him to understand the problem
with greater clarity and provide him with a framework for collecting, analyzing and
interpreting his data. Second, they are, in Kerlinger’s words, the working instruments of
theory. They can be deduced from theory or hypotheses. Third, they can be tested,
either empirically or experimentally, thus resulting in confirmation of rejection. There is
always the possibility that a hypothesis, once confirmed and established, may become a
law. And fourth, hypotheses are powerful tools for the advancement of knowledge
because, as Kerlinger explains, they enable man to get outside himself.
End of Topic on Research

Thank You
Prepared by

ESMEN M. CABAL, Ed.D.

THANK YOU!
Importance or Significance of the Study

1. It is where the significant contributions of the results of

the study are enumerated. Such contributions may be
viewed from the point of the target beneficiaries like the
researcher himself, service providers, client, society,
administrators, planners, decision-makers, implementers,
the community, the educational institutions, legislatures,
and practitioners.

2. It may also be viewed on their contributions to the

accumulation of knowledge, solving a problem which
improves certain of refinement of concepts and theories,
improvement of research instruments and methods and
meeting the priorities of institutions.
Scope and Delimitations of the Study

The scope identifies the boundaries or coverage of the study in term of

subjects, objectives, facilities, area, time frame, and the issues to which the research is
focused.

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

The theoretical framework shapes the justification of the research problem

objectives in order to provide the basis on its parameters. It is desirable for a researcher
to identify the key concepts that are used in the study for better understanding of the rule
of theory in research. It is a symbolic construction, which uses abstract, concepts, facts or
laws, variables and their relations that explain and predict how an observed phenomenon
exists and operates.

Conceptual framework presents specific and well-defined concepts, which are

called constructs. Its function is similar with theoretical framework because the constructs
used are derived from abstract, concepts of the theoretical framework.

Paradigm is a diagrammatic representation of a conceptual framework. It depicts in a

more vivid way what the conceptual framework want to convey.
Definition of Terms

This section of the research includes important or key terms that

should be substantially and clearly defined according to how they are used
in the study in order to facilitate understanding of the problem and avoid
ambiguous meaning to terms which can be otherwise interpreted in
different ways.

Definitions of terms may be of two categories, namely;

(1) operational and (2) conceptual or lexical definitions with the
research or exercising option in the use of these two categories.

Operational definitions express the meaning of the terms as used

in a particular field of study while conceptual definition is usually taken
from the dictionary. It carries a universal meaning easily understood by
people.
Related Literature and Studies
Related literature is composed of discussions of facts and
principles to which the present study is related.

These materials are classified as

1. Local, if printed in the Philippines; and
2. Foreign, if printed in other lands.

Related studies, on the other hand, are studies,

inquiries, or investigation already conducted to which the
present proposed study is related or has some bearing or
similarity. They are usually unpublished materials such as
manuscripts, theses, and dissertations.

They may be classified as

1. Local, if the inquiry was conducted in the Philippines; and
2. Foreign, if conducted in foreign lands.
Importance, Purposes, and Functions of Related Literature and Studies

1. They help or guide the researcher in searching for or selecting a better

research problem or topic.
2. They help the investigator understand his topic for research better.
3. They ensure that there will be no duplication of other studies. There is
duplication if an investigation already made is conducted again in the same
locale using practically the same respondents. This is avoided if a survey of
related literature and studies be made first.
4. They help and guide the researcher in locating more sources of related
information. This is because the bibliography of a study already conducted
indicates references about similar studies.
5. They help and guide the researcher in making comparison between his
findings with the findings of other researchers on similar studies with the end
in view of formulating generalizations or principles which are the
contributions of the study to the fund of knowledge.
Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies

1. The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible.

2. Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased.
3. Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study.
4. Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely
original and true facts or data to make them valid and
reliable.
5. Reviewed materials must not be too few nor too many.
How to write Chapter 5 – Summary, Conclusions, and
Recommendations
The whole research study is summarized, and
generalizations in the form of conclusions are presented and
the solutions to the problems are offered in the form of
recommendations.
General Summary of the Study
This section includes the summary of statement of the
problem, assumptions, hypothesis, research design,
determination of the sample size (if sample survey), sampling
design and techniques, the subjects, the research instruments,
validation of the research instruments, data gathering
procedures, data processing method, and statistical treatment.
Summary of Findings
This section summarizes the results based on the
chapter 4. If there are only three specific questions stated in
chapter 1 and answer in chapter 4, there are only three results
summarized in this section and no presentation of tables.
Guidelines in Writing the Summary in Findings

1. There should be brief statements about the main purpose of

the study.
2. The findings may be lumped up all together but clarity
demands that each specific question under the statement of
the problem must be written first to be followed by the findings
that would answer it. The specific questions should follow the
order they are given under the statement of the problem.
3. The findings should be textual generalizations, summary of the
important data consisting of text and numbers. Every
statement of fact should consist of words, numbers, or
statistical measures woven into a meaningful statement. No
deduction on the interpretation e made.
4. They should be stated as concisely as possible.
Conclusions
They are the dovetails with the findings of the study. If there are only
three summarized results, there are three conclusions. They are arranged as it
appears in the findings. Rejection and acceptance of hypotheses are
explained in this section. They are valid outgrowth of the findings.

Guidelines in Writing the Conclusions

1. They should not contain any numerals.
2. They appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the beginning of
the investigation.
3. No conclusion should be drawn from the implied or indirect effects of the
findings.
4. They should not be repetitions of any statements anywhere in the
research, thesis, and dissertations. They may be recapitulation if necessary
but they should be worded differently and they should convey the same
information as the statements recapitulated.
Recommendations

They are based on the conclusions. They are

appeals to people or entities concerned to solve or help
solve the problems.

Guidelines in Writing the Recommendations

1. It should aim to solve in the study.
2. It ensures a continuous benefit being accorded to
the universe involved.
3. It should be logical and valid to recommend the
acquisition of the lacking of the facilities.
4. It should recommend a further study or research in a
wider application.
HOW TO ORGANIZE THE THESIS/RESEARCH PAPER

A thesis is much longer than an ordinary paper or journal

article and thus requires very careful and detailed organization. All
standard theses nowadays use the IMRAD style for brevity and
conciseness. Basic unit of division, with subdivisions if appropriate
are acceptable depending on the manner and flow of
presentation. The main essence of the presentation is to make the
finished, accepted and reviewed paper ready for the publication
with little changes in writing it. Once the researcher/student in
consultation with the Research Professor and the Adviser have
decided on the chapter divisions and subdivisions, then the
organizational scheme on the format of the headings per topic
must be clarified.
 Researchers and students choose one of two organizational
schemes to organize the different sections: the heading schemes or the
decimal system. Whichever scheme is chosen, be consistent; do not mix
organizational schemes. Remember, regardless of the system that will be
used, ideas should develop in a logical way from general to specific.

A reader should be able to tell at a glance from the organizational

scheme which ideas are of greater, lesser or equal importance. Thus, the
table of contents will reproduce the organizational scheme used in the text.
Remember that the table of contents is the only index to the paper, thus it
must be accurate and complete.

Both the heading scheme and the decimal system can be expanded
to accommodate several levels of headings. If the researcher uses the
heading scheme, then it is needed to base the series of headings on the
main topic that has the most levels. A decimal system can be expanded
simply by carrying a heading to another decimal place.
ORDER OF THE RESEARCH/ THESIS SECTIONS/ PARTS

All standard research and or theses are compromised of a number of sections,

which should be assembled according to the following sequence (required items are in
boldface). Directly following the list below are descriptions of each section.
Preliminary pages :
Title page;
Approval page;
Acknowledgments
Abstract (modern day of making abstract is limited to 250–500 words including the key
words)
Table of contents;
List of tables and/or list of figures, in either order; glossary, nomenclature, or list of
abbreviations, terms or symbols (optional)
Body of the paper: introduction; problem, methodology, results and discussion,
conclusion and recommendation (sometimes optional)
Final pages or back matter:
Bibliography/ References or endnotes, and works cited and/or bibliography. The
researcher may refer to include footnotes on the chapter pages or main section (for APA
style) or place endnotes or references at the end of each chapter.
Appendices and other attachments are placed as back matter, but can be optional.
Curriculum Vitae
 Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Statement of the Problem

Significance of the Study

Scope and Limitations of the Study

 Chapter 2
FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

Related Literature and Studies

Theoretical Framework

Conceptual Framework

Hypothesis/ses

Definition of Terms
 Chapter 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design

Research Locale

Respondents of the Study

Sampling Technique

Research Instrument

Validation of Instrument

Data Gathering Procedure

Statistical Treatment of Data

 Chapter 4
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Chapter 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
 End of the Topic

THANK YOU VERY MUCH

DR. ESMEN M. CABAL, Ed.D.

Professor/ Director, Quality Assurance