SPH 401: INTRODUCTORY PHYSICS I

LECTURE 2: (Motion) KINEMATICS

SEMESTER 1, 2025

Prepared by Mr. Max Jay

 2: MOTION (KINEMATICS)

 Characteristics of Motion
• Distance, Displacement, Speed, Velocity
• Acceleration
 Graphs of Motion
• Distance Time Graph
• Velocity Time Graph
 Linear Motion
• Equations of Linear Motion
• Free Fall Motion
 Two Dimensional Motion
• Projectile Motion
• Circular Motion
• Rotary Motion
There are different types of motion occurring around us all the time. Some examples
are the movement of people walking, athletes running on tracks, cars being driven
along roads, aeroplanes flying in the sky, footballs being kicked, compact discs
rotating on CD players, trains travelling along tracks, mail being sorted and basketball
falling through the ring and so on. This movements form an important part of
everyday life.

Figure 1: Different types of motion

• Movement involves a change in position in a certain time. Therefore, quantities like

distance, time, speed and acceleration with their measurements must be
considered when describing the motion of an object.
• Our knowledge of Physics enables us to analyse the motion of an object precisely.
For example, aeroplane pilots need to know their exact position in the air, how long
it will take to fly to their destination, how much fuel to take and the effect of the
wind on their speed and direction of flight.
 Understanding Motion in Physics

• Motion is crucial in vehicle design, accident investigations, and

understanding movement.
• Position of an object is specified at any time.
• Graphing is commonly used to explain motion.
• The geographical system (north, south, east, west) helps in specifying
direction.
• A number line (x-axis) is useful for defining position along a straight line.
• Position includes a number, unit, and direction.
• Since direction is involved, position is a vector quantity (denoted as ).
 Distance, Displacement, Speed and Velocity
Displacement and Velocity
• Displacement is a change in position in a certain direction.
• It is obtained by subtracting or adding one vector from or to another, making the result
a vector.
• The average speed of a moving object is the distance travelled divided by the time
taken.
• Displacement divided by time gives the average displacement per unit time, which is
the velocity.
• Velocity is a vector quantity because displacement includes directional information.

Understanding Motion
• Motion in one dimension uses displacement (s), time (t), velocity (v), and acceleration
(a).
• The same applies to two-dimensional motion, but vector properties require more
clarification.
• Distance and displacement both describe length, but distance is a scalar quantity,
while displacement is a vector.
• Both use the symbol 's' and are measured in meters.
Example

Distance is the length of actual path travel from the starting point to the
finishing point. It has a magnitude (size) but no direction.
A girl walks 5 metres from point A to point B in the classroom and backs to
point A another 5 metres. The distance travelled by the girl from point A to
B and from B to A is 10 metres, but does not give the girl’s direction. Since
distance is a scalar quantity and does not give direction, the total length she
travelled is 10 metres (5m +5m =10m).

Figure 2: Girl walking in a 5m length

Displacement is the distance in a straight line in a certain direction from
the starting point. It has magnitude (size) and direction. To understand this,
we can simply study the diagram in Figure 3 below. Consider a girl walking
west (point B) 5 m in the classroom and then back to east (point A) 5
metres. The displacement of the girl will be zero. This is because the girl
walks 5 m in the west direction which is negative and the east direction to
be positive. This gives us negative 5 m plus positive 5m east which will
cancel out giving us a net displacement of zero. (- 5 + 5 = 0 m)

Figure 3: Girl walking 5m West and then 5m East

Displacement is a vector that joins the initial position to the final position of
an object.

Figure 4: Displacement and distance illustration

Displacement is that vector from the beginning position to the end position of a motion.
Example 1
A body moves from A to C via B. It has travelled a total distance of 16m.

Displacement representation

The distance travelled is 16m. However, its displacement from the starting
position is 12m to the East or displacement is equal to 12m east. The
displacement is calculated using Pythagoras theorem which you will come
across later in the unit. Displacement is a vector quantity. For straight line
motion, positive displacement shows forwards motion while a negative
displacement shows backward motion. Displacement can also be referred to
by compass direction.

Positive displacement is always to the right and negative displacement is always to the left.
Now consider a person running around a circular track. The circumference
of the circular track is always the distance travelled, which is calculated by
using and the displacement would be the diameter of the track. This is
because the displacement is always in a straight line in a certain direction.
In the Figure 5, the circular track is 400m and the radius is 63.69m, thus
giving us the diameter of 127.38 metres. Using the formula above as:

Therefore the diameter is 127.38 m which is now the runner’s displacement

if he runs halfway around the track. If the runner starts and completes the
race, then the displacement is zero.

Figure 4: Displacement and distance

representation in circular track

We will use letter d to represent the total distance travelled and s for the
change in displacement.
The change in displacement is defined by;
s = final displacement – initial displacement

If the motion consists of many parts, then the change in displacement is the
sum of the displacement in each part of the motion. Take for example, if an
object starts at an origin let us say 15m and then by -5m then by 2m, the
change in displacement is 15 – 5 + 2 = 12m. The final displacement is 12 +
0 = 12m.
Measurement of time
Time is used to measure speed and velocity.
Time, t, is a scalar and is measured in seconds.
For example, t = 2min 10s which is equal to 130 s.
Speed and velocity
In the last unit, you learnt about the difference between scalar and vector
quantities. Now that we are studying motion, you expect to meet more
vector quantities because object has motions in particular directions. We use
speed as a scalar which has a magnitude (size) and velocity as a vector that
has magnitude and direction. So velocity is both the speed and direction of
the motion of an object.
We can use some terms to describe the motion of a motor vehicle. The terms
commonly used include speed, velocity, acceleration and distance. The
everyday use of these terms is often different from the scientific usage. For
example, most people use the words speed and velocity to mean the same
thing. But to the scientist, the two terms have slightly different meanings.
When we talk about an object’s speed, we have no idea about its direction
since it is a scalar. We can say the speed is the time rate of change of
distance. Velocity, on the other hand, is the time rate of change of
displacement. Both quantities use the symbol, v, and both units of
measurement are in metres per second, .
For Example

• Speed is the distance travelled in unit time.

• Velocity is the distance travelled in particular direction in unit time.

Velocity is a vector and is a derived quantity. It is related to the quantities

displacement and time and is build up from the fundamental quantities of
length and time.
The average velocity of a moving object is found by dividing total
displacement by the total time taken.

From the equation, the dimensions of the average velocity are . While the
average velocity is a vector quantity, and therefore has direction and
magnitude, average speed is a scalar quantity and is found by dividing the
total distance by the total time.
Average velocity
Two very simple required measurements for the calculation of an average
velocity are:
• displacement(s) of an object and
• time (t) for this displacement to occur.
Displacement, s, is the straight line distance from a reference position. The
average velocity is given the symbol . Mathematically, average velocity is
the displacement undergone by an object in unit time.
In everyday situations, for example in a car, the units of velocity are
kilometres per hour . However, SI units for velocity are metres per second ()
as displacement has unit of measures in metres (m) and the time taken in
seconds(s).
The table below shows the average velocity of some things you are familiar
with in both and . These velocities are useful for future comparison.
Movement m/s Km/h
Snail 0.003 0.01
Fast walker 2 7.2
Runner 5 18
Bicycling 14 50.4
Fast car 36 129
Sound in Air 340 1224
Jet Plane 600 2160
Earth around the Sun 30 000 108 000
Light and radio waves 300 000 000 1 080 000 000

Table 1: Object’s movement and their speed

If a car takes 10 seconds to travel along a straight road for 300 metres, it means that
the car travels at an average speed of 30 metres per second (30 m/s or 30m). When an
object moves, it changes its position. The speed at which it moves depends on how far
it moves and how long it takes.
The speed of a moving body is the distance travelled in unit time. When we
talk about an object’s speed, we have no idea about its direction (so speed is
a scalar quantity).

Here, v is the speed, s is the distance and t is the time taken. Speed has a
variety of units, for example, kilometres per hour () or in millimetres per
second (). However, the correct S.I. unit for speed is the metre per second ().

The average velocity of a moving object is found by dividing total

displacement by the total time taken.
Definition of velocity is defined as speed in a particular direction. For
example, East or West. Velocity is a vector quantity.

A car is travelling at a constant speed. Its velocity changes each second.

Figure 5: Car travelling at various velocities

As with speed, we can also use the term average velocity to describe the
motion of an object like a car.

Where (delta) represents ‘change in‘, t means change in time. The speed of
a car is sometimes given in kilometres per hour (km/h) or .

Example 2
A car travels from one city to another 96km away in 1.2 hours. What is the
car’s average speed in:
a) Km/h
b) m/s
Solution
Example 3
A person rides a bicycle 2km east and then 2km north. The trip takes 2
hours.
Find the,
a) person’s average speed and
b) average velocity Bicycle’s route

Solution
c)
The diagram below shows a car travelling at constant speed. Its velocity
changes each time it turns a corner because the direction of its motion
changes. The velocity of the car measured at a particular moment is called
the instantaneous velocity of the car.

Figure: 6 Car’s route

Figure 6 Car’s route
Sometimes, when velocity is not uniform, we are concerned with the velocity
of an object at a particular instant. This is called instantaneous velocity of an
object at that instant. To find the instantaneous velocity of an object, we find
its average velocity during a small period of time that we are interested in.
The small period of time is written as , and the small displacement is called .
We try to make and as small as possible.
Distance moved in a stated direction is often replaced by the term
displacement. Thus, the instantaneous velocity is the rate of change of
displacement.
In a modern car, a device within the transmission produces a series of
electrical pulses, which are sent to a calibrated device that translates the
pulses into the speed of the car. This information is then displayed on the
car in the form of a deflected speedometer needle or a digital readout. In
older cars, speedometers were linked mechanically to the transmission.
Here, a car's speedometer needle is
pointing to zero, meaning that the car is
at a standstill. The speedometer
measures instantaneous speeds or
speeds at that instant.

Instantaneous speed is speed in a small time interval and can be plotted on a graph
such as the one given below.

From the graph, the readings of the

speeds at 2.5 seconds and 10.5 seconds
are given below.

a) 2.5 seconds = 0
b) 10.5 seconds. Speed = 20 m/s
Changing units
In many situations, the person solving the problem is required to change
the units of a given quantity. The following conversions are commonly
required.
1 kilometer = 1000 meters
1 minute = 60 seconds
1 hour = 60 minutes
1 hour = 60 x 60 = 3600 seconds
Imagine a velocity of 20 km/h is to be converted to m/s. Here, one unit
should be converted at a time.
Now 1 hour = 3600 s
So, 20 000 m/h = 20 000 m in 3600 s
= 5.5 m/s
In the laboratory you may require these conversions:
 Acceleration
Whenever the velocity of an object is changing, it has acceleration. The
object could be speeding up, slowing down or changing direction. In each of
this case, its velocity is changing. The equations of motion you shall come
across later in the chapter describe the motion of objects that have a
constant acceleration in a straight line.
We have seen cars increasing their speed and
slowing down on a busy road. We must know that
the change of speed is called acceleration. When
we want to measure acceleration we need to know
how much time it takes for a certain change of
speed or velocity, and we define acceleration as
follows:
Acceleration, (a) is the change of velocity
Figure 8: Cars travelling at different speeds (v) over period of time (t).
So, we calculate the acceleration from the change of velocity which occurs in unit time.
Many objects move at a constant velocity. The velocity of a car increases when it starts
moving from rest and decreases on an application of a brake. Cars can thus speed up
(accelerate) or slow down (decelerate).
If the change in velocity is measured in metres per second and the time in
seconds, then the acceleration is measured in metres per second squared
that is .
A car slowing down is said to decelerate. In other words, it will have a
negative acceleration. Acceleration is a vector quantity. The term
retardation is sometimes used instead of deceleration. You may at times
encounter certain problems dealing with calculating acceleration of linear
motion. For example, if the words deceleration and retardation are used in
describing the motion, then the acceleration will have a minus sign in front
of the value.
Example 1
A train increases speed from 4 m/s to 10 m/s in 3 seconds. Find the acceleration.

Example 2
A taxi travelling at 15 m/s slows down to 5 m/s in 2 seconds. Find its acceleration.

Note: This worked example shows that the taxi is decelerating or slowing down.
Example 3
A large truck increases velocity from 6m/s to 10m/s in 2 seconds. Find its
acceleration.

Example 4
A train traveling at 20m/s slows down to 10m/s in 2 seconds. Find its acceleration.

Note: The negative sign here indicates that the car is slowing down. You can also
describe it by saying that the car is decelerating at or it has an acceleration of .
Adding other vectors
Often an object can be given two velocities at once. An aircraft, for example,
can be given a velocity by its engines and another by the wind. The two
velocities then are added to give the aircraft its actual velocities. When
adding a vector, the size and direction both affect the result. If the engine
speed is 4m/s and the wind speed is 3m/s, the aircraft’s actual speed can
work out to be 1m/s or 7 m/s or 5 m/s.

Figure 9: Adding vector into the wind and with the

wind
Cross wind
Flying into the cross – wind
In the first second, the engine of the aircraft drives at 4m/s east and at the
same time, the wind blows north at 3m/s. The aircraft finishes up at A, 4 m/s
east and 3 m/s north from its starting point. So the diagonal line OA, as
shown in the solution below is the aircraft’s actual velocity vector.

Figure 10: Resolving vector across the wind

R is the resultant vector you get if you add X and Y (see diagram in the solution below). To
find the sum of the two velocity vectors we use the Pythagoras theorem. This is because
the two vectors form a right angle triangle.
The diagram illustrates how Pythagoras theorem is used to calculate the
resultant velocity of the plane when encountering a cross wind.
Solution Solution
The angle R makes with X from Y is

Adding other vectors is carried out in the same way as forces. These vectors
include velocity and displacement. The example below can be resolved into
components as well.
Example 1
A pilot aims his plane due east at 50 m/s while the wind is blowing north 20
m/s. The resultant speed and direction of the plane are found from the
diagonal of the parallelogram.

The working out shown below. It

explains how you can find the
resultant and the true bearing.
Resolving into two components
In some cases, it is necessary to split a single vector into two parts. It is
called the components of the vector. The method is the reverse of an
addition of forces called the resolution. Sometimes, it is useful to reverse
the parallelogram method of adding vectors. In the diagram above, the
resultant (54 m/s) can be resolved into two components, (20 m/s and 50
m/s).
The diagram below shows how a single vector (R) has two components,
horizontal (H) and vertical (V). The two components taken together have
exactly the same effect as single vector (R).

Figure 11: Resultant vector showing two components V

and H
The magnitudes of the two components are given by:

Horizontal component of vector is

Vertical component of vector is

Using cosine ratio for horizontal component

Using sine ratio for vertical component

Note: the calculated answers are rounded to the nearest whole number.
Adding velocities
a) .

Figure 12: Illustration of adding

velocities at same direction

The diagram above shows a train moving at a velocity of 80km/h in a direction

along the railway track to the right. This is the velocity of the train relative to the
track and how an observer would see as the train went past.

A man inside the train can walk along the train either to the right or to the left at a
velocity of 5km/h. How fast is the man on the train moving about the railway
track?

Clearly the direction in which he walks makes a difference because if he walks in

the same direction with the train, his velocity adds to the velocity of the train. On
the other hand, if he walks opposite the train’s direction, his velocity is subtracted
from the train’s velocity.
We usually take the velocity to the right as positive and velocity to the left as
negative.
b) .

Figure 13: Illustration of subtracting

velocities, at opposite direction

It gives the train a velocity of +80 km/h in two cases. The man has a velocity of +5 km/h if
he went towards the right and he has -5 km/h if he went towards the left. Therefore, we
add the velocities of the train and the man in both cases to find their resultant or combine
the velocity relative to the track.

a)

b)

Arrows always represent the direction of vectors.

Example 2
A car travels 60 m/s East and then 80 m/s South. What is the resultant
velocity of the car?
Suppose two velocities are represented in size and direction by the sides of
a parallelogram (drawn to scale). The resultant velocity is represented in
size and direction by a diagonal drawn from where the two velocities act.
Use a scale of 1cm = 20 m/s

Using Pythagoras theorem for velocity at right angles (),

we can solve for the resultant, which is;

Resultant using Pythagoras Theorem

The Pythagoras theorem is the analytical method of finding the resultant of
the force. An arrow represents a vector. The length of an arrow represents a
magnitude and a direction of the vector shown by the direction of the arrow. The
size of the arrow measures from the arrow head to the tail of the arrow. This
method will be discussed next.
Combining vectors
Rules for adding vectors
Step 1. Set up a direction reference, e.g., cardinal points.

Direction reference

Step 2. Calculate a suitable scale. Vector diagrams should not be

small because this will reduce its accuracy.
Step 3. Draw the first vector keeping its length and direction
accurate. Show the direction of the vector with an arrow
head in the centre or at the end.
Step 4. From the head of the first vector, draw the second
vector. You must be accurate with its length and its
direction.
Step 5. The resultant or the vector sum is the line joining the
tail of the first to the head of the second vector. The
magnitude of the sum is the length of the
vector, and the direction is the direction of the vector.
This process can be used in adding two or more vectors.
Arrow represents two or more vectors can be combined to produce a single
resultant vector.
Now let us consider an aeroplane flying East at a velocity of 120 km/h. The
wind also blows east at 20 km/h. The resultant velocity is found by drawing
the two vectors to the same scale and adding head to tail. The resultant is
140 km/h and has the same direction as the two velocities.

Figure 14: Direction of aeroplane flying East

The second case is where an aeroplane is flying eastward at 120 km/h with
the wind blowing towards the west at 20 km/h. The head wind will slow down
the plane. The resultant velocity is found by drawing the two vectors at the
same scale and adding head to tail. The resultant velocity of the plane will be
100 km/h east. The resultant simply has the same direction as the greater
velocity.

Figure 15: Direction of aeroplane flying East with Wind flowing West

An aeroplane flying eastward at 120km/h encounters a strong wind blowing

to the north at 90km/h. To find the resultant we draw a scaled diagram and
use trigonometry involving a triangle.

In this case, the vectors are added head to tail and the resultant is found by
joining the starting point to the finishing point as shown in the diagram on
the next page.
 Figure 16 Direction of aeroplane
flying
East with Wind
blowing North

The resultant is the diagonal to the parallelogram. This is constructed by using the
component velocity vectors as sides. In a scaled diagram such as this one, you can
use a ruler to measure your resultant velocity. The resultant is 150 km/h in the
East direction. Now to find the angle, you can still measure it with a protractor. It
should approximately measure up to .

It can also be calculated by using Pythagoras theorem as examples shown earlier.

If the vectors are drawn to scale 1cm = 20 km/h, then the resultant will be 150
km/h.
To work out the angle using a calculator, . Press shift button on your
calculator, then press tan button. You should get the answer 36.9 on your
calculator. Remember, it is the angle and should be written in degrees.

The velocity and direction written in t rue bearing is

The parallelogram method to add vectors acting at the same point but not
in a straight line is used. The order in adding vectors does not affect the
magnitude and the direction of the resultant. There are four different
vectors shown in the diagram on the next page. If you add the four vector
head to tail in different ways but keeping its direction, you will have the
same effect for their resultant.
Two possible ways of joining your vectors are shown in the diagram below.

The resultant of many vectors is a single

vector that would have the same effect
as all the single vectors added head to
tail.

Figure 17: Resultant of a number of vectors

Subtracting vectors
In certain problems, it is necessary to subtract vectors. For instance, when
subtracting vector B from vector A, the direction of vector B is reversed and
added to A (head to tail).

Here, vector B has its direction reversed, and when added to a vector A, it
falls under the subtraction process for an unlike sign. The determination of
resultant is in the same way.
For example, if you want to subtract a displacement of 12 m south which is
B and a displacement of 18 m north which is A. Then we add the vectors
and obtain an answer 30 m north. Other vectors can be subtracted in the
same way as the displacement.
A = 18m North = +18
B =12m South = -12
18m - (-12)m = 30m North
 Figure 18: Vector illustration on
subtracting opposing direction

2.2 Graphs of Motion

The equations that we studied earlier can be used when acceleration and velocity are
constant. However, the graphical analysis of motion has the advantage that it can be used
for both constant and variable acceleration because the concept is the same in each case.
Moreover, graphs are often useful as they give a continuous picture of the motion from
data which is taken at a regular and very small time interval. For example, the gradient of
a velocity time graph gives the acceleration as:
If the acceleration for each of the different sections of a velocity – time graph is
calculated, the results can be used to plot acceleration - time graph. The time
scales for the two graphs are often same. In the same way, the gradient of the
displacement - time graph gives the velocity. We can also work backwards using the
area under the velocity – time graph. As velocity is calculated from the
displacement divided by time, displacement equals velocity multiplied by time.

It is where the area under the velocity versus time graph gives us the size of the
displacement. We cannot calculate without additional information, therefore, we
find out where an object is at a particular time from a velocity – time graph. It is
simply because the graph only gives us the displacement or change in position. To
find out the object’s final position, we need to know its initial position to which the
displacement can be added. The area under the acceleration-time graph has the
units of acceleration multiplied by time (a x t) which gives the units of velocity . In
this case, a velocity-time graph can be created by calculating the area under the
acceleration-time graph.

An acceleration–time graph comes from a velocity–time graph after calculating the

velocity. The area under the acceleration-time graph measures these changes but
give no information about the initial velocity, so you cannot calculate the final
velocity from the graph.
We have seen that velocity is almost the same thing as speed, but it is a
vector quantity. In a similar way, displacement is almost the same as
distance, but it is a vector quantity. Displacement has a size (called distance)
and direction.

If you move to a different part of the room, you might have a displacement
of 2 metres in an Easterly direction. The direction is important. The ticker
timer measurements are sometimes used to draw displacement-time
graphs, although they are not as useful as velocity time graphs.

The techniques of graphing are very useful in kinematics. Drawing graphs

can simplify calculation of velocity, displacement and acceleration.
Distance –Time Graph
A body travelling with constant speed covers equal distances in equal time. If
distance –time graph is a straight line, like OL in the diagram below, it shows a
velocity of 10 m/s. The slope of the graph is OL / OM = 40m / 4s = 10 m/s
DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPH FOR CONSTANT SPEED

When the speed of the body is changing, the slope of the distance-time graph
varies and at any point, equals the slope of the tangent. For example, the slope
of the tangent is . The velocity at that instant corresponding to T is therefore 20
m/s.
 DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPH FOR NON CONSTANT SPEED

The two graphs shown above are distance–time graph for a constant speed
and a non constant speed. We can now conclude about the slope of the two
graphs.
The slope of a distance - time graph gives the speed.
Displacement-time graph
If the car moves away at constant velocity, then the displacement will
increase. If the car moves away at a higher velocity, then the line will be
steeper. The velocity is shown by the slope (or gradient) of the displacement–
time graph. The diagram shows a displacement time graph for a car at rest
(stationary, not moving).

A. DISPLACEMENT-TIME B. DISPLACEMENT-TIME C. DISPLACEMENT-TIME

GRAPH FOR AT REST GRAPH FOR GRAPH FOR
CONSTANT VELOCITY ACCELERATING
 D. DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPH FOR LIFT

The graph shown above as well as the three on the previous page is
displacement-time graph for four different bodies. We can now conclude
about the slope of the four graphs.
You can still convert a displacement-time graph into a distance time graph. Consider
the displacement time graph given below. We may extract following information from
it. The initial displacement is zero. This means that a body started from rest and
moves with a positive velocity of 1m/s for 5 seconds. For the next 5 seconds, the
body was resting. It then moves with a negative velocity of -1ms-1 for the next 20
seconds. This means that the body is now travelling in the opposite direction between
10 seconds and 20 seconds.
• Velocity at 4 s = 1 m/s
• Velocity at 15 s = 1 m/s DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPH

If you convert the graph into a distance – time graph, it will be like the one shown on
the next page. There is no negative value of distance travelled. Distance time graph
cannot be changed to a displacement-time graph as there is not enough information
available.
Speed is the gradient of the distance–time graph at the time indicated.
Speed at time 4s = 1m/s.
Speed at time 15s = 1m/s
DISTANCE –TIME GRAPH
Velocity–Time Graph
When the velocity of a body is plotted against time, the graph obtained will
be a velocity time graph. It provides a way of solving motion problems. Tape
charts are crude velocity time graphs which show the velocity in jumps
rather than smoothly, as occurs in practice. A motion sensor gives a
smoother plot.
CONSTANT VELOCITY TIME GRAPH

In the graph, AB is the velocity-time graph for a body moving with a constant velocity
of 20 m/s. Since distance = average velocity x time, after 5 seconds it will have
moved 20 m/s x 5s = 100m. It is the shaded area under the graph, the rectangle
OABC.
The diagram below shows another graph with constant velocity. The PQ is
the velocity–time graph for a body moving with uniform acceleration. At the
start of the timing, the velocity is 20 m/s but increase steadily to 40 m/s
after 5 seconds. If the distance covered equals the area under the PQ, that
is the shaded area OPQRS, then

VELOCITY TIME GRAPH FOR CONSTANT ACCELERATION

The diagram shows a velocity – time graph for a car travelling at different
velocities. It shows that the car is accelerating or increasing its acceleration.
VELOCITY TIME GRAPH FOR INCREASING ACCELERATION

What would the graph look like if the car accelerated gently?

Because its velocity would increase the graph would slope upwards. In this graph, the
car started from a rest where the velocity is zero and accelerated uniformly
(steadily). A straight line graph means a uniform constant acceleration.
The graph below shows the car decreasing its velocity.
VELOCITY TIME GRAPH FOR DECREASING ACCELERATION

Remember: If an object starts from rest, the velocity

is zero.
A straight line graph means uniform, constant acceleration.
What would the graph look like if the car accelerates more rapidly?
Since its velocity increased more rapidly, the graph would be steeper.

VELOCITY TIME GRAPH FOR CONSTANT DECELERATION

VELOCITY TIME GRAPH FOR CONSTANT NEGATIVE ACCELERATION

The slope of a velocity- time graph shows how fast a body accelerates.
The steeper the slope, the acceleration will be greater. This simply
means the body is moving faster in a time of one second. If the slope of
the graph is less steep, then it has a gentle acceleration. Hence, the
body is moving slowly in a time of one second.
The velocity-time graph below will help compare the motion of two bodies
moving with constant velocities.
VELOCITY TIME GRAPH COMPARING THE MOTION OF TWO BODIES
MOVING WITH CONSTANT VELOCITY

To calculate the acceleration of the two bodies, you can use the formula below. The
answer, you obtain from calculating the slope should give some idea about the motion of
the two bodies. Unless the bodies are accelerating, then you must plot a line of best fit or
tangent as shown earlier. This will make it easy for you to calculate the slope. Regardless
of where you want to work out the slope, the value for each will be same anywhere on the
line graph. This is because both motions are constant.
Now let us try and calculate our slope.

The acceleration is shown by the slope (gradient) of the velocity-

time graph).

Slope A

Slope B

You will now see the acceleration is much higher for line graph A and is less
for line graph B.
The diagram shows a velocity-time graph for a car starting off from one set
of traffic light and stopping at the next set of lights.
VELOCITY- TIME GRAPH FOR A CAR

In this graph, you will see that the car accelerates from A to C, than travels
at a constant velocity from C to D and then decelerates (brakes) rapidly to
stop at point E. The car is accelerating most at point B and C.
 VELOCITY- TIME GRAPH FOR A MOTORBIKE

From the diagram, you will see that the motorbike is accelerating more rapidly
at E and F. The motorbike will shift gear at point G and H where the speed
changes. The fastest speed will be achieved between F and G. The rider will
start to use the brake to stop the car at point I. At point J and K, the graph
shows the rider hitting a solid brick wall.

Distance travelled is shown by the area under the velocity –

time graph.
 VELOCITY TIME GRAPH FOR CONSTANT NEGATIVE ACCELERATION

The diagram above shows the velocity of a stock car (insert) when starting a race crashing into
another car and then reversing.

From the diagram, we can see that the driver has to wait 10 seconds before the starter waves his
flag to start the race. The car acceleration is greatest at point C because of the steepness of the
graph. The fastest speed will be achieved between point D and E where the velocity will be 15
m/s. The driver will start to stop his car by pressing the brake at point E and it will come to a stop
at point G after hitting another car. The time for the car to travel this far is 60 seconds. The driver
rested for 10 seconds before reversing his car at point H. When the car is reversing the velocity is
negative. The car’s maximum velocity at reverse will be negative 5 m/s (-5 m/s) at point I. The
driver took 30 seconds to reverse the car and finally came to a stop at point J.
Area under the velocity-time graph
The graph below shows a body that starts from rest and accelerates
uniformly for 10 s reaching a velocity of 20 m/s. It then travels at this
velocity for 40 s, before deceleration to rest in 50 s.
Example 1
VELOCITY TIME GRAPH
To calculate the total displacement you can use two methods.
a) Calculate the displacement for each part of the graph and then add them
together.

Therefore, total displacement = 100 + 800 + 500 = 1400 m

b) Use the fact that the area under the velocity vs time graph is the
displacement. Now the shape of the area between the graph and the ‘x’
axis is a trapezium. The formula for the area of the trapezium is.

You will see that the answers obtained either way are same but method B is
much quicker.
 The acceleration of the velocity- time graph is the slope of the
graph.
Segment 1.

Segment 2. The acceleration = 0 (since there is no change in velocity)

Segment 1.

Since the acceleration has a negative value, we

conclude that the object’s motion is slowing down or
decelerating.
Example 2
VELOCITY TIME GRAPH FOR A CAR TRAVELLING ALONG A STRAIGHT
ROAD

Given is a velocity–time graph for a car travelling along a straight road. Find
the:

a) acceleration at 1s, 3s and 6s.

b) displacement after 12s. You must know that the acceleration is the
gradient of the graph.
Between , the gradient of the graph is . Therefore, the acceleration is . Even if
you calculate the gradient at , it will still be .
Between , the gradient is , so the acceleration is .
The displacement is the area under the graph. You divide the total area into
four parts and add your answer.

The area under the time axis is a negative displacement. It means that the moving
object is travelling in the opposite direction. The distance covered in the above
example would be, 60 + 11.25 = 71.25.

The acceleration for the velocity time graph is represented in the acceleration time
graph below.
Acceleration – time graphs
It is also possible to draw acceleration–time graphs from velocity–time
graphs. The following example is based on the above velocity-time graph.
ACCELERATION –TIME GRAPH
 Graphical Comparison

 Given the displacement time graph (a)

 The velocity - time graph is found by

measuring the slope of the position -
time graph at every instant.

 The acceleration - time graph is found

by measuring the slope of the velocity
-time graph at every instant.
 Slope and Area under Motion Graphs.

SLOPE

AREA
2.3. Linear Motion
Linear motion refers to motion in a straight line. The motion of an object
has been described using the different quantities. You have studied the
connections between position, displacement, velocity, speed, acceleration
and time. If we use the symbols to represent the size of each quantity,
you would come up with mathematical links between these quantities.

Equations of motion are used to study the motion of an object travelling

with a constant acceleration in a straight line. In this section, you will look
at how these quantities are related to each other. Each of the four
equations for motion with constant acceleration connects four of the five
variables, s, u, v, a and t. Problems can be solved by selecting the
suitable equation or combination of an equation that involves those
variables that are known and those that are not.
Equations of Linear Motion
There are four equations that link together the important factors required to
define any particular motion. The quantities with their symbols and the units
are given in the table below.

Table 4: Table of quantities and symbols

You may use different equations to solve word problems when dealing with motion
in straight line. The four equations, which can easily be rearranged into different
forms, are given below.
First equation
If a body is moving with a uniform acceleration a and its velocity increases from
u to v in time t then;
𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐕𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐯 − 𝐮
𝐚= =
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐓𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧 𝐭
𝐚𝐭 = 𝐯 − 𝐮
𝐯 = 𝐮 + 𝐚𝐭 ………………(𝟏)
Note that the initial velocity u and the final velocity v refer to the start and finish
of the timing and do not necessarily mean the start and finish of the motion.
Second equation
The velocity of the body moving with uniform acceleration increases steadily. Its
average velocity therefore, equals the sum of its initial and final velocities, that
is;

If s is the distance moved in time t, since average then

Third equation
If you substitute equation (1) into equation (2) in terms of v

Fourth equation
From equation (1) we have:

Substitute the above into equation (2) by replacing (t) and cross multiply.
Steps in solving word problems
1. Read the problem very carefully and make sure you understand it.
2. List the quantities given.
3. Identify the unknown quantity that is to be determined.
4. Choose the appropriate formulae to solve the problem. In choosing the
formula you must ensure that all the quantities are given except one.
5. Make the unknown become the subject of the formula.
6. Substitute the known quantities and simplify.
7. Write down the correct answer with the units.
It is necessary to know how to derive the equations of motion shown. The text
does give you some idea of how to derive the equation. It is also necessary to
learn the equations by heart. The important thing is to be able to solve problems
using these equations. If you know any of the three of SUVAT, then you can work
out the other two easily.
Note: These formulae apply when the acceleration is constant and the motion is in a
straight line. Velocity, acceleration and displacement are vector quantities and
therefore may be positive or negative.
Example 1
A car starting from rest reaches a velocity of 20 m/s in 10 seconds. Assuming that
the acceleration is constant, calculate the:
a) acceleration and
b) distance travelled in this time interval.
Solution

Example 2
“A car starts from rest, and accelerates steadily at 3 . How far must it travel before
it is moving at 30 m/s?”
In this example, u = 0 m/s; v = 30 m/s, and a = 3 , so the fourth equation is
suitable.
Substituting the correct values into the equation again:

So the car must travel a distance of 150 metres before it is moving at 30m/s
Example 3
A motorbike starting from rest reaches a velocity of 20 m/s in 10 seconds.
Assuming that acceleration is constant, calculate the
a) acceleration and
b) distance travelled in this time interval.
Solution
Reaction time and stopping distance
When the driver of a car sees that an accident is about to happen, he or she
must react by stepping on the brakes. It may take a while for the driver to
react. The time between seeing that accident about to happen and braking
the car is called the reaction time. This time may depend on the driver’s
age, experience, alertness and physical fitness. The reaction time may
range from 0.2 seconds to 0.8 seconds. The reaction distance is the
distance travelled during reaction time until the car comes to a complete
stop.
Reaction distance = reaction time x the average speed during
this time

Braking distance is the distance travelled by a vehicle with the brakes

application (the car does not stop suddenly) with the wheels locked. Such
braking produces uniform deceleration.
Stopping distance = reaction distance + braking distance
 Figure 26: Illustration of stopping distance

When the driver of a car travelling at 36 km/h suddenly sees a pedestrian in front of
a car, he applies the brakes. The reaction time of the driver is 0.2s. If the maximum
deceleration that the brakes can produce is , find the maximum stopping distance for
the car.
Solution

36 km/h = 10 m/s
Reaction distance s = ut = 10 x 0.2 = 2 m
Braking distance;

The car would have travelled 4.5 m after the driver reacted by applying the brakes
and the car coming to a stop completely.
The table below shows the braking distance increasing with speed.

Speed of the car Reaction Braking distance Stopping

(m/s) distance(s) (m) distance(m)
100 20 60 80
90 18 48 66
80 16 38 54
70 14 29 43
60 12 22 34
50 10 15 25
40 8 10 18
30 6 6 12
20 4 3 7
10 2 2 4

Table 5: Table showing that the braking distance increases with speed
The above example shows that the braking distance increases with the
speed. This braking distance also depends on the road surface, which is the
friction between the tyres and the road surface. It may also depend on the
conditions of the weather. When a vehicle is travelling downhill, the braking
distance also depends on the slope of the hill. Smooth tyres and brakes that
are not working properly may also increase the braking distance.

Therefore, the above factors must be considered when determining a safe

distance when travelling behind another car, coming to stop at a crossing or
a traffic light.
Free Fall Motion
Consider an object dropped from a cliff. It accelerates downwards under gravity. We can
apply the equations of motion for constant acceleration to this motion. We let u and v to be
the initial and the final velocities, a as the acceleration, t as the time and s as
displacement. If an object is thrown vertically upwards and returns to the same position,
we can use the equations studied earlier. However, we need to be careful in assigning
negative or positive to indicate its direction. For situations that only involve downward
motion, we choose a positive sign for all quantities.
Acceleration due to gravity
The gravitational force in downward direction holds the motor vehicles to the ground. Motor
vehicles pushed over a cliff fall downwards because of the force of gravity. As objects fall
from the height, they accelerate downwards. If air resistance or friction is ignored, then all
objects (regardless of their masses) will accelerate at the same rate when close to the
earth’s surface. This rate called the acceleration due to gravity has the symbol, g, and has
a value of 9.8 . For easier calculation, the value is rounded off to 10 . It means that, objects
falling freely under gravity increases their speed by about 10 m/s in every second.
When we are working with calculations involving the acceleration of gravity, we need to
assign a positive and negative direction of the motion. There are different forms of motion
under gravity depending on how the motion starts. If an object is released from rest and
allowed to fall, we call it a free-falling object. If an object is thrown or projected with an
initial velocity, we call this a projectile. The size of the Earth’s gravitational pull on an
object is proportional to its mass.
The acceleration of free fall, g = is also known as acceleration due to
gravity.
Free fall motion can also be solved using the two equations given below. The
acceleration (a) can be replaced by (g) to represent acceleration due to
gravity. The distance (s) can be replaced by (h) for height. Any object that is
dropped from an initial height will be considered as zero.
Free fall motion can also be solved using the two equations given below. The
acceleration (a) can be replaced by (g) to represent acceleration due to
gravity. The distance (s) can be replaced by (h) for height. Any object that is
dropped from an initial height will be considered as zero.
Two examples of the sorts of problems that can be solved using the above
equations are as follows:
Example 1
A stone is dropped down a well 50 metres deep. How long will it take to
reach the bottom?
Solution
It is dropped from rest, so u = 0 m/s. It is falling under gravity, and therefore,
the acceleration, a, is . The third equation is suitable, and the relevant
values can be substituted into it:

the stone will take 3.19 seconds to reach the bottom of the well.
Example 2
A bomb is dropped from a helicopter 500m above ground. Ignoring the air
resistance, calculate the:
a) time that it takes before hitting the ground,
b) velocity of the impact. (Consider g = 10 m)
Solution
c) Take the downward direction as a plus (+).

b.

The formula applies when the acceleration is constant and the motion is in
straight line. Also remember that velocity, acceleration and displacement are
vector quantities and can be positive or negative.
In reality, air resistance opposes motion, which makes the time taken for the
object to fall much longer than 9 seconds. This causes the velocity of the
impact to be much less.
Example 3
A stone is thrown vertically upwards at an initial velocity of 20m/s. Ignore air
resistance and calculate:
a) how high the ball goes.
b) the time to reach that height.
c) the total time taken for the flight. (g =10m)

Ball thrown and free fall after

When the ball is going upwards, it is decelerating because the acceleration

due to gravity is always downwards. The acceleration will have a negative
value. Since we ignore air resistance, we assume that it has a value of .
Solution
a) The height of the ball

b. The time to reach the height

Since it took 2s to go up, it will take another 2s to come down. The total
time of the flight is 4 seconds.

You can also present the information in the previous page on a graph as
shown below. It is a velocity time graph for a stone thrown vertically into the
air.
VELOCITY TIME GRAPH FOR A STONE THROWN VERTICALLY INTO AIR

Area A is the maximum height in which the stone went up.

Point C shows the time in which the stone was at maximum height.
If you calculate the gradient at B, it will give you the acceleration due to
gravity.
ACCELERATION TIME GRAPH FOR A STONE THROWN VERTICALLY
INTO AIR
Terminal velocity
When a raindrop starts to fall, it will accelerate under gravity. As it gains
speed, air resistance opposes its motion.
When the speed is high enough, the air resistance is equal to the
gravitational force on the raindrop. This makes the forces balance out. The
water droplet continues to fall at constant velocity.

Figure 27:
Factors affecting
terminal velocity

The velocity of a constant motion is called terminal

velocity.
 Sky divers often change the shape of their bodies to speed up and slow
down. Rolling up into a ball while falling will increase their terminal velocity
because of the decrease in surface area. To decrease speed, it will require
spreading out their arms. The change simply increases their surface area.
When the parachute opens up, it increases the surface area that will increase
air resistance. It will make the terminal velocity of the parachutist small
enough for him to land safely.

Figure 28: Terminal velocity of a diver

A human falling freely (with parachutes not opened) from an aeroplane will gain
speed at a rate of 10 m/s each second until he or she reaches a velocity of 50
m/s or 80 km/h. The person will then keep falling at this rate which is the
terminal velocity. Different falling objects under gravity have different terminal
velocity.
Factors that determine terminal velocity are weight, size and the
surface area of falling objects.

A small dense object like a steel ball–bearing has a high terminal velocity and fall
a longer distance with an acceleration of 9.8 before air resistance equals its
weight. A light object, like a raindrop or an object with a large surface area
accelerates for a short distance before air resistance equals its weight. The large
surface areas of the parachute increase resistance that will reduce terminal
velocity. Terminal velocities of this substance may also depend on mass and their
surface area.
The table below shows the terminal velocities of some bodies.

Table 6: Terminal velocities of some bodies

Through this module, it has been assumed that all bodies fall at a rate
determined by g that is 9.8 . It is true only for bodies falling in a
vacuum. The fact is that most objects fall in air, where the continual
acceleration of gravity is counter balanced by air pushing upwards.

Figure 29:
Terminal velocities
of apple versus
feather in air and
vacuum.

Galileo showed us in his experiment that all bodies fall in a vacuum with the
same acceleration. You have seen that a piece of paper is reaching the ground
much less rapidly than a stone dropped from the same height. After a short time,
the velocity of the paper reaches a constant value which is maintained during the
rest of the fall.

The stone continues to accelerate past the paper. This constant velocity is what
you have seen earlier as terminal velocity.
 Two-Dimensional Motion
Introduction to Two-Dimensional Motion
• Objects thrown through the air follow a curved path.
• Examples: Ball, arrow, bullet, missile, javelin, discus.
• The object launched is called a projectile.
• The path it follows is called its trajectory.
• Factors affecting trajectory:
 Speed
 Angle of projection
 Shape of object
 Air resistance
 Spin
Simplifications in Calculations
• Air resistance and spin are often ignored for easier calculations.
• Despite this, these effects are useful in real-world applications.
Circular Motion in Everyday Life
• Many objects move in circular or near-circular paths.
• Examples:
 Wheels, gears, engines, and generators rotate.
 Planets, moons, satellites follow orbital motion.
 Vehicles, roller coasters, and aircraft experience curved paths.
• Rotation is measured in revolutions per minute (rpm).
 Example: Clothes dryers operate at 400 - 800 rpm.
• The time taken for one full orbit is called the period.
 Speed = circumference / period.
Complex Motions in Two Dimensions
• Many motions combine different simple motions.
• Example:
 Projectile motion can include rotation or spin.
 Circular motion can be part of projectile motion.
• Projectiles follow curved paths unless moving straight up/down.
Projectile motion
There are two important types of motion. In rectilinear motion, objects move
in straight lines. This motion normally occurs when the objects are moving
freely, such as a stone falling from the top of a building. In curvilinear motion,
objects move in a curved path because they receive a sideways push, such
as a cyclist moving around a circular bend or an aeroplane doing a “loop the
loop” flight exercise.
In the last topic, you saw that there are different forms of motion under
gravity, depending on how the motion is started and often called free fall
motion.
When an object is released and allowed to fall, we call it free falling object.
However, if the object projects with an initial velocity, we call this projectile
motion.

Figure 30: Projectile motion

In a projectile motion, the vertical and horizontal

motions are independent and can be treated
separately.
You will see that the diagram above is showing a motion of two balls. One is
projected horizontally while the other drops vertically. Notice that the two balls are at
the same level at any instant. Their initial vertical velocities are zero and their
accelerations due to gravity are equal. Thus, a projectile falls like a body dropped
from rest. Its horizontal velocity does not affect its vertical motion.

For example, if a ball is thrown horizontally from a cliff and takes three seconds to
reach below, we can calculate the height of the cliff by considering the vertical
motion only. We have u = 0 (since the ball has no vertical velocity initially), a = g =
+10 m/ and t = 3s. The height of the cliff is given by,

So far, we have only considered the vertical motion of an object under the influence
of gravity. Often, we need to study the motion of objects that have a horizontal
component to their velocity as well as a vertical component, for example, a bullet or
cannon shell. We will in this case ignore air resistance.

Suppose we have a projectile launched at velocity, v. At first it has a horizontal

component of its velocity v, and a vertical component to its velocity of zero. Since
there is no horizontal force acting, the horizontal component of its velocity remains
v. However, if we consider the vertical component of its velocity, it is changing at a
rate of 9.8ms-1 downwards.
Horizontal projection
Apart from the special situation of an object being thrown vertically upwards
or downwards, projectiles follow curved paths. The velocity of the projectile
at any point in its path is in a particular direction along a tangent to the path.
The object’s velocity changes along the part both in size and direction but
due to gravity acting vertically downwards. At the highest point, the velocity
is horizontal and not zero. If it were zero, the object would fall vertically
downwards. Beyond the highest point, as the objects fall, the size of the
velocity increases and the path becomes steeper.
Example 1
A car is driven horizontally off a cliff at a velocity of 12 and takes 3s to reach
the ground below

Projectile motion of a car from off the cliff

Calculate the,
a) height of the cliff,
b) distance from the cliff the car lands and
c) velocity with which the car strikes the ground.(Use g=10 m/s)
Solution

b) Horizontal motion only

c) The velocity of the car has not changed throughout the motion which is
12 m/s. The vertical velocity increase as the car falls. Vertical velocity at
impact. (v = gt = 10 x 3 = 30 m/s.)
The two velocity components form the sides of a rectangle of which the
actual velocity of the impact is given by the diagonal.

Figure 31: Velocity – impact components

The angle of impact, , can be found from

So
Example 2
A stone of mass 0.5kg is propelled horizontally from the top of a tower of
height 40 metres. The initial speed of the stone is 15 m/s. Calculate the, (use
g = 9.8 )
a) time taken to hit the ground.
b) horizontal distance of the impact point from the base of the cliff.
Solution
c) Consider the vertical motion,
b) Consider the horizontal motion,

Projection at an angle
Not all projectiles are launched horizontally, but sometimes at an angle, , to
the horizontal. In this case, the horizontal component of the projectile has
not changed since no horizontal force is acting (neglect air resistance) while
the vertical component of the velocity is subject to acceleration, g, 9.8
downwards. If the initial velocity of the projectile is v m/s at an angle to the
horizontal then;
• The horizontal component of velocity initially is v cos .
• The vertical component of the velocity is v sin .
Projectiles in sports often follow similar paths, but the requirements may
vary in different type of sports. In sports such as hammer, discus or javelin
throwing, the object has to be propelled far at a horizontal direction. In the
case of bowling in cricket and pitching in softball, the distance the ball
travels before being hit by the opponent is constant.
Projectile such as basketball balls and explosives shells are projected from
the ground level and at an angle.
Figure 32
projectile motion from
ground at a certain angle

The horizontal distance that the object travels and its range depends on

• The speed of the projection. The greater the speed, the greater the range.
• The angle of projection. The range is maximum when the angle is .

Figure 33
Projectile motion from ground at a certain angle
To study this kind of motion, we have to know the angle , that is the angle
between the direction of the initial velocity and the ground. The initial
velocity has a vertical and horizontal component. Because of gravity, such
projectile travels in a parabolic path (with no air resistance)

Figure 34
Velocity – impact with and without air resistance
Example 1
A mortar shell is fired at 100 m/s at an angle above the ground. Assume
that .
Find the:
a) initial horizontal component of the shell’s velocity.
b) maximum height reached.
c) time the shell spends in the air.
d) distance travelled horizontally (the range of the shell).

Velocity – impact components

Solution:
a)

b) At the highest point reached, the velocity will be zero. The horizontal component
is still 86.6 m/s.

c) The time projectile in the air equals the time it takes to reach its maximum height
plus the time it takes to fall from its height. This is equal to twice the time it takes
to reach maximum height. (Note: Treat the vertical and the horizontal
components of the motion separately.)
Vertically

The total time of flight is 2 x 5 = 10s

d) To calculate the range of the shell, we use the horizontal component
Horizontally

Example 2
A ball is kicked at an angle of to the horizontal with a velocity 0f 20 m/s.
Ignore air resistance and take g to be . Calculate the:
e) initial horizontal component of the ball’s velocity.
f) maximum height reached.
g) time the ball spends in the air.
h) distance travelled horizontally ( the range of the ball).
This problem is similar to the example above.
Solution

At the highest point reached, the velocity will be zero. The horizontal
component is still 18.91m/s.

,s=?
b) The time projectile is in the air equals the time it takes to reach its
maximum height plus the time it takes to fall from its height. This is
equal to twice the time it takes to reach maximum height. (Note that the
vertical and the horizontal components of the motion can be treated
separately).
Vertically

c) The total time of flight is 2 x 3.1 = 6.13s

d) To calculate the range of the shell we use the horizontal component
Horizontally

When a motor vehicle is brought to rest in a collision, loose material from

the vehicle is often projected forward. It is easier to establish the speed
before impact from the distance travelled by the projected material. Such
information is useful in accident reports.
Example 3
A car runs off the road and collides with a tree. Glass particles from the
windscreen are projected forward, and are found at an average distance of
12 m from the car. The average height of the windscreen is 1.2 m. Find the
speed of the car at the time of impact. Assume that acceleration due to
gravity is .
Solution
Vertically

Horizontally
Circular Motion
There are many everyday situations where objects travel in circular paths.
The Earth spins on its axis and orbits the sun. A compact disc spins on disc
players when the music is being played. Electrons orbit the nucleus of an
atom. The hands of a mechanical clock follow a circular path as the time
passes. Communicating satellites orbit the earth many times a day and
winds within tropical cyclones move in circular paths.

Car accidents often occur when the drivers of motor vehicles are trying to
travel around a bend in a road at high speed. A vehicle that exceeds the safe
speed limit can slip off the road and usually crash into anything along its
path such as a tree or a fence.

A vehicle travelling around a bend on a level road is moving along a circular

path. A vehicle travelling along a curved path is continually changing its
velocity (its speed may be constant) because the direction of the motion is
always changing. So it has acceleration.
Consider a particle moving around a circle of radius r in the diagram below.
At point A, the velocity of the particle is at a tangent to the circular path.
When the particle reaches point B, its velocity still has the same magnitude,
but its direction has changed. To find the acceleration, we need to determine
the average change in velocity.

Figure 35: Centripetal acceleration

This is where we use rules of subtraction of vectors. We reverse the

direction of the subtracted vector and add head to tail to get the
You will observe that the resultant’s direction is towards the centre of the circle.
We can also say that, the acceleration experienced by the particle directs towards
the centre of the circle.
The acceleration of this type is called centripetal acceleration or in other words
centre seeking acceleration.
A formula to calculate centripetal acceleration is:

where, r, is the radius of the circular path in metres. Because it has a centripetal
acceleration, a car of mass m travelling in a circular path also experiences
associated force, which is called the centripetal force. Therefore, by using
Newton’s law of motion (F = ma) we get the equation for uniform circular motion.
From the equation given above, we substitute centripetal acceleration (a) into the
equation below.

This centripetal force points towards the centre of the circle. If you swing a ball at
the end of a string, a horizontal circular path above your head is formed, and you
can feel yourself pulling continually on the string to keep the ball in orbit. The
string applies a centripetal force to the ball. If the string breaks, the ball will fly off
at a tangent to the curved path at the point where the string broke. This
behaviour is according to Newton’s first law of motion.
When a ball is whirled in a circle, it is accelerating inwards. This inward
acceleration is caused by a centripetal (centre-seeking) force — the tension
in the string. The required force is equal to , where m is the mass of the ball,
v is its speed, and r is its distance from the centre of revolution. The hand
pulling the string experiences an outward or centrifugal reaction force.

Figure 36: Centrifugal reaction force

In a car going around the bend, the centripetal force is provided by the
sideways friction between the tyres and the road surface. The centripetal
force does not work in the motion; it is only one of the many forces at work.
For an object travelling in a full circle at uniform speed, v, the distance
covered in one complete circuit is . If the time for one complete circuit is T,
then;

Since

On a level surface, friction F, is proportional to the weight W of an object.

The ratio of friction to weight is equal to a constant called the coefficient of
friction (µ). The coefficient of friction depends on the nature of the surface.

Where , and W are measured in Newtons. W is the force of gravity acting on

the object.
W = mg
Where m is the mass and g is the acceleration due to gravity. As mentioned
above, for a vehicle moving around the curve, the centripetal force is
provided by the sliding friction between the tyres and the road surface.

We get
Where
The speed v in the last equation is taken as the maximum safe speed for
rounding a curve. It depends on the coefficient of friction between the road
and the tyres and the radius of the bend since g is constant.
A vehicle can safely travel if driven at a speed that is lower than the
maximum safe speed. If it is driven faster than the safe speed, the vehicle
will slip sideways because the friction force is not large enough to provide
the centripetal effect. If the road around a bend tilts at an angle, then the
vehicle can travel at higher speed.
Centripetal acceleration and force
In the last discussion, we saw that an object travelling along a circular path
at a constant velocity has acceleration towards the centre of the circular
path. Such acceleration is called the centripetal acceleration ().
Where v = linear velocity (m/s) and r = radius of the orbit
(m)

Figure 37
Centripetal acceleration and force

Because of the centripetal acceleration, an object of mass m

experiences a centripetal force ().

For an object travelling at a uniform velocity v in a circle of

radius r, the distance travelled during a complete circuit is s = .
The time taken to complete this circuit is the period of the motion.

Since
Example 1
An aeroplane is travelling in a circle of radius 2500 metres at a speed of 200
m/s. Calculate the radial acceleration of the plane and the time to complete
the revolution.

Time for the revolution = period of motion = T

Example 2
A bus weighing 60 000N is driven at a speed of 20 m/s around a horizontal
bend that has a radius of 250 m. What is the centripetal force of the road on
the bus?

Note: Friction force will be studied in the next chapter.

Circular motion at non- constant speed

A ball swinging on the end of a string in a vertical circle has a non-uniform
velocity around the circle because of the influence of gravity (the weight of
the ball). The speed of the ball is highest at the bottom of the circle and
lowest at the top of the circle. The centripetal acceleration is at a minimum
at the top and maximum at the bottom. (In the figure below, T is used to
represent the tension in the string, while W is the weight of the ball). The
centripetal force is the net force directed towards the centre of the circle.
 Figure 38:
Circular motions at non-constant speed

At the top:

At the side:

At the bottom:

The minimum velocity needed to keep the ball in the orbit is found to be the
velocity at the instant when the string begins to slacken (when T = 0 at the
top). This is when,

Maximum tension happens at the bottom of the path.

Example 3
A breaking strain of a string is 196N. A ball of mass 1 kg is attached to a
length of the string and swung in a vertical circle of radius 1.0m. Calculate
the maximum velocity the ball can have before the string breaks. (Take g =
10)
maximum velocity ( at the bottom)
Rotary Motion
Everything in the universe is in motion. Even as you sit, you are moving very
rapidly because the Earth is rotating on its axis and that is why, you are moving
as the earth moves around the Sun. The Sun, the Earth and the rest of the
planets in our solar system are moving in a general rotation around our galaxy
within the universe.
In the equation you studied and used so far for circular motion, v has represented
the tangential or linear velocity of the body. Objects are moving in a circular path
with an angular velocity, .
The angular velocity is the angle turned through per unit time. It is measured in
radians per second. One radian is the angle when the arc length is the same as
the radius of the circle. There are 2 radians (rad) in a circle, equivalent to .
Therefore,
Tangentialonevelocity
revolution equals
(v) 2 radians.
= angular velocity () x radius (r)

Centripetal acceleration and the force in terms of angular velocity:

Until now, all motion has always involved linear quantities. However, another system
can be used when dealing with motion in a circle. Instead of basic measurements
being linear displacement and time, angular displacement and time are used. The
angular displacement of an object is the angle in radians through which it has rotated
and is given the symbol, .
The formula for angular displacement is, shown below.

where s = arc of the circular path of the object and r = the radius of the circular
motion.
Note that the s is part of the circumference of the circle and the circumference is
given by C = 2r.

Figure 39
Angular Displacement of an object
In a full circle,

Since,

In other words, represents 2 radians. Radians can be represented by unit

‘rad’ or by placing a small c where the degree symbol for an angle would be
placed.
For example;

In what you have studied earlier of motion in a straight line, velocity is

defined as the rate of change of linear displacement. Similarly, an angular
velocity is the rate of change of angular displacement, given the symbol
(Greek letter which is called omega).
Average angular velocity has the following.
The table below shows linear and angular quantities

Physical Quantities Linear Quantities Angular Quantities

Displacement S
Time
Velocity V

Table 7: Linear and angular quantities with their symbols

Where is measured in radians, t, is measures in seconds and is measured in
or .
The time for an object to complete its full circle is called its period. If an
object undergoes a full circle, then its angular displacement is 2 radians.
So if

It means that allows the angular velocity to be determined knowing only the
object’s period.
Angular displacement is a scalar quantity requiring no direction. Angular
velocity is a vector quantity, but its vector nature will not be considered
here. The angular velocity of every point of a body undergoing uniform
circular motion is the same.
Consider the second hand of a clock. For example, all points along the hand
complete full circle at the same time. It means that each point has an
identical period and an identical angular velocity. However, the tangential
velocity of each point is different. If

In other words, the larger the radius of the motion, the larger is the
tangential velocity.
Note: Calculators can be used with a radian mode. You can set your
calculators on radian mode using the manual for instruction.
Example 1
A train is travelling on a track which is part of a circle of radius 600m, at a
constant speed of 50m/s. What is its angular velocity? What centripetal force
acts on the train if its mass is 2000kg?

Example 2
A fly wheel of radius 2m is making 120 RPM (revolution per minute).
Calculate the linear velocity of a point on the rim.
First, convert revolution per minute into rad/s
1 revolution = 2 radians
Therefore;
Now, calculate angular velocity , in which is given by

Now calculate Linear Velocity

 End of Lecture 2

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