Chapter-2

The Need for Security

Dr. Muhammad Khalil Afzal

Department of Computer Science
Associate Professor
CUI, Wah
Security threats: Learning Goals
– Understand a successful information security program is
the responsibility of an organization’s general
management and IT management.
– Understand the threats posed to information security and
the more common attacks associated with those threats.
– Differentiate threats to information systems from attacks
against information systems.
Business Needs First, Technology Needs Last
Information security performs four important
functions for an organization:
– Protects the organization’s ability to function
– Enables the safe operation of applications
implemented on the organization’s IT systems
– Protects the data the organization collects and uses
– Safeguards the technology assets in use at the
organization

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 Protecting the Ability to Function
• Management is responsible
• Information security is
– a management issue
– a people issue
• Communities of interest must argue for
information security in terms of impact
and cost

Slide 4
 Enabling Safe Operation

• Organizations must create integrated,

efficient, and capable applications
• Organization need environments that
safeguard applications
• Management must not abdicate to the IT
department its responsibility to make choices
and enforce decisions

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 Protecting Data

• One of the most valuable assets is data

• Without data, an organization loses its record of
transactions and/or its ability to deliver value to
its customers
• An effective information security program is
essential to the protection of the integrity and
value of the organization’s data

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 Safeguarding Technology Assets
• Organizations must have secure infrastructure
services based on the size and scope of the
enterprise
• Additional security services may have to be
provided
• More robust solutions may be needed to
replace security programs the organization has
outgrown

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 Threats and Attacks
• Attack: An intentional or unintentional act
that can damage or otherwise compromise
information and the systems that support
it. Attacks can be active or passive and
direct or indirect.
• Exploit: A technique used to compromise
a system.
• Vulnerability: A potential weakness in an
asset or its defensive control system(s).
 Threats
• Management must be informed
of the various kinds of threats
facing the organization
• A threat is an object, person, or
other entity that represents a
constant danger to an asset
• By examining each threat
category in turn, management
effectively protects its
information through policy,
education and training, and
technology controls

Slide 12
 Threats
• The 2002 CSI/FBI survey found:
– 90% of organizations responding detected computer security breaches
within the last year
– 80% lost money to computer breaches, totaling over $455,848,000 up
from $377,828,700 reported in 2001
– The number of attacks that came across the Internet rose from 70% in
2001 to 74% in 2002
– Only 34% of organizations reported their attacks to law enforcement

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Threats to Information Security

Slide 14
 Acts of Human Error or Failure
• Includes acts done without
malicious intent
• Caused by:
– Inexperience
– Improper training
– Incorrect assumptions
– Other circumstances
• Employees are greatest
threats to information
security – They are closest to
the organizational data

Slide 15
 Acts of Human Error or Failure
• Employee mistakes can easily
lead to the following:
– revelation of classified data
– entry of erroneous data
– accidental deletion or
modification of data
– storage of data in unprotected
areas
– failure to protect information
• Many of these threats can be
prevented with controls

Slide 16
 Deviations in Quality of Service by Service
Providers
• Situations of product or services not delivered as
expected
• Information system depends on many inter-dependent
support systems
• Three sets of service issues that dramatically affect the
availability of information and systems are
– Internet service
– Communications
– Power irregularities

Slide 17
 Internet Service Issues
• Loss of Internet service can lead to considerable loss
in the availability of information
– organizations have sales staff and telecommuters working at
remote locations
• When an organization outsources its web servers, the
outsourcer assumes responsibility for
– All Internet Services
– The hardware and operating system software used to
operate the web site

Slide 18
 Communications and Other Services
• Other utility services have potential impact
• Among these are
– telephone
– water & wastewater
– trash pickup
– cable television
– natural or propane gas
– custodial services
• The threat of loss of services can lead to inability to
function properly

Slide 19
 Power Irregularities
Voltage levels can increase, decrease, or cease:
– spike – momentary increase
– surge – prolonged increase
– sag – momentary low voltage
– brownout – prolonged drop
– fault – momentary loss of power
– blackout – prolonged loss
• Electronic equipment is susceptible to fluctuations,
controls can be applied to manage power quality

Slide 20
 Espionage/Trespass
• Broad category of activities that
breach confidentiality
– Unauthorized accessing of
information
– Competitive intelligence vs.
espionage
– Shoulder surfing can occur any
place a person is accessing
confidential information
• Controls implemented to mark the
boundaries of an organization’s virtual
territory giving notice to trespassers
that they are encroaching on the
organization’s cyberspace
• Hackers uses skill, guile, or fraud to
steal the property of someone else

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 Espionage/Trespass
• Generally two skill levels among hackers:
– Expert hacker
• develops software scripts and codes exploits
• usually a master of many skills
• will often create attack software and share with others
– Script kiddies
• hackers of limited skill
• use expert-written software to exploit a system
• do not usually fully understand the systems they hack
• Other terms for system rule breakers:
– Cracker - an individual who “cracks” or removes protection
designed to prevent unauthorized duplication
– Phreaker - hacks the public telephone network

Slide 24
 Information Extortion
• Information extortion is
an attacker or formerly
trusted insider stealing
information from a
computer system and
demanding compensation
for its return or non-use
• Extortion found in credit
card number theft

Slide 25
 Sabotage or Vandalism
• Individual or group who want to
deliberately sabotage the
operations of a computer system or
business, or perform acts of
vandalism to either destroy an asset
or damage the image of the
organization
• These threats can range from petty
vandalism to organized sabotage
• Organizations rely on image so Web
defacing can lead to dropping
consumer confidence and sales
• Rising threat of hacktivist or cyber-
activist operations – the most
extreme version is cyber-terrorism

Slide 26
 Deliberate Acts of Theft
• Illegal taking of another’s property - physical,
electronic, or intellectual
• The value of information suffers when it is copied
and taken away without the owner’s knowledge
• Physical theft can be controlled - a wide variety of
measures used from locked doors to guards or alarm
systems
• Electronic theft is a more complex problem to
manage and control - organizations may not even
know it has occurred
Slide 27
 Deliberate Software Attacks
• When an individual or group designs
software to attack systems, they
create malicious code/software
called malware
– Designed to damage, destroy, or Trojan
Horse
deny service to the target
systems M
• Includes: R
O
–
–
macro virus
boot virus W Virus
– worms
– Trojan horses
– logic bombs
– back door or trap door Bomb
– denial-of-service attacks
– polymorphic
– hoaxes

Slide 28
 Deliberate Software Attacks
• Virus is a computer program that attaches
itself to an executable file or application.
• It can replicate itself, usually through an
executable program attached to an e-mail.
• The keyword is “attaches”. A virus can not
stand on its own.
• You must prevent viruses from being installed
on computers in your organizations.

Slide 29
 Deliberate Software Attacks

• Learn about OS and application vulnerabilities.

• The Mitre Corporation’s Common
Vulnerabilities and Exposures.
www.cve.mitre.org

Slide 30
 Deliberate Software Attacks
• There is no foolproof method of preventing
them from attaching themselves to your
computer
• Antivirus software compares virus signature
files against the programming code of know
viruses.
• Regularly update virus signature files is crucial.

Slide 31
 Deliberate Software Attacks
• A worm is a computer program that replicates and
propagates itself without having to attach itself to a
host.
• Most infamous worms are Code Red and Nimda.
• Cost businesses millions of dollars in damage as a
result of lost productivity
• Computer downtime and the time spent recovering
lost data, reinstalling programming's, operating
systems, and hiring or contracting IT personnel.

Slide 32
 Deliberate Software Attacks
• Trojan Programs disguise themselves as useful
computer programs or applications and can
install a backdoor or rootkit on a computer.
• Backdoors or rootkits are computer programs
that give attackers a means of regaining access
to the attacked computer later.

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 Deliberate Software Attacks
• Challenges:
– Trojan programs that use common ports, such as
TCP 80, or UPD 53, are more difficult to detect.
– Many software firewalls can recognize port-
scanning program or information leaving a
questionable port.
– However, they prompt user to allow or disallow,
and users are not aware.
– Educate your network users.
– Many Trajan programs use standard ports to
conduct their exploits.
Slide 35
 Deliberate Software Attacks
• Spyware
– A Spyware program sends info from the infected computer to the
person who initiated the spyware program on your computer
– Spyware program can register each keystroke entered.
– www.spywareguide.com
• Adware
– Main purpose is to determine a user’s purchasing habits so that Web
browsers can display advertisements tailored to that user.
– Slow down the computer it’s running on.
– Adware sometimes displays a banner that notifies the user of its
presence
• Both programs can be installed without the user being aware
of their presence

Slide 36
 Protecting against Deliberate Software
Attacks
• Educating Your Users
– Many U.S. government organizations make security
awareness programs mandatory, and many private-sector
companies are following their example.
– Email monthly security updates to all employees.
– Update virus signature files as soon as possible.
– Protect a network by implementing a firewall.
• Avoiding Fear Tactics
– Your approach to users or potential customers should be
promoting awareness rather than instilling fear.
– When training users, be sure to build on the knowledge
they already have.
Slide 38
 Compromises to
Intellectual Property
• Intellectual property is “the ownership of ideas and
control over the tangible or virtual representation of
those ideas”
• Many organizations are in business to create
intellectual property
– trade secrets
– copyrights
– trademarks
– patents

Slide 39
 Compromises to
Intellectual Property
• Most common IP breaches involve software
piracy
• Watchdog organizations investigate:
– Software & Information Industry Association (SIIA)
– Business Software Alliance (BSA)
• Enforcement of copyright has been attempted
with technical security mechanisms

Slide 41
most common IP breaches until 2025
 Floods Earthquakes
Windstorms Thunderstorms
Humidity Tornadoes
Avalanche Volcanoes

Forces of Nature
Landslides Hurricanes

Fire Snowstorms

• Forces of nature, force majeure, or acts of God are

dangerous because they are unexpected and can
occur with very little warning
• Can disrupt not only the lives of individuals, but also
the storage, transmission, and use of information
• Include fire, flood, earthquake, and lightning as well
as volcanic eruption and insect infestation
• Since it is not possible to avoid many of these
threats, management must implement controls to
limit damage and also prepare contingency plans for
continued operations
Slide 43
 Technical Hardware Failures
or Errors
• Technical hardware failures or errors occur when a
manufacturer distributes to users equipment containing flaws
• These defects can cause the system to perform outside of
expected parameters, resulting in unreliable service or lack of
availability
• Some errors are terminal, in that they result in the
unrecoverable loss of the equipment
• Some errors are intermittent, in that they only periodically
manifest themselves, resulting in faults that are not easily
repeated

Slide 44
 Technical Hardware Failures
or Errors
• This category of threats comes from purchasing software
with unrevealed faults
• Large quantities of computer code are written,
debugged, published, and sold only to determine that
not all bugs were resolved
• Sometimes, unique combinations of certain software and
hardware reveal new bugs
• Sometimes, these items aren’t errors, but are purposeful
shortcuts left by programmers for honest or dishonest
reasons
Slide 45
 Technological Obsolescence
• When the infrastructure becomes antiquated or
outdated, it leads to unreliable and untrustworthy
systems
• Management must recognize that when technology
becomes outdated, there is a risk of loss of data integrity
to threats and attacks
• Ideally, proper planning by management should prevent
the risks from technology obsolesce, but when
obsolescence is identified, management must take
action

Slide 46
 Attacks
• An attack is the deliberate act that exploits
vulnerability
• It is accomplished by a threat-agent to damage or
steal an organization’s information or physical asset
– An exploit is a technique to compromise a system
– A vulnerability is an identified weakness of a controlled
system whose controls are not present or are no longer
effective
– An attack is then the use of an exploit to achieve the
compromise of a controlled system

Slide 47
 Malicious Code
• This kind of attack includes the
execution of viruses, worms, Trojan
horses, and active web scripts with
the intent to destroy or steal
information
• The state of the art in attacking
systems in 2002 is the multi-vector
worm using up to six attack vectors
to exploit a variety of vulnerabilities
in commonly found information
system devices

Slide 48
Slide 49
 Attack Descriptions
• IP Scan and Attack – Compromised system scans
random or local range of IP addresses and targets any
of several vulnerabilities known to hackers or left
over from previous exploits
• Web Browsing - If the infected system has write
access to any Web pages, it makes all Web content
files infectious, so that users who browse to those
pages become infected
• Virus - Each infected machine infects certain
common executable or script files on all computers
to which it can write with virus code that can cause
infection

Slide 50
 Attack Descriptions
• Unprotected Shares - using file shares to copy viral
component to all reachable locations
• Mass Mail - sending e-mail infections to addresses found
in address book
• Simple Network Management Protocol - SNMP
vulnerabilities used to compromise and infect
• Hoaxes - A more devious approach to attacking
computer systems is the transmission of a virus hoax,
with a real virus attached

Slide 51
 Attack Descriptions
• Back Doors - Using a known or previously unknown and
newly discovered access mechanism, an attacker can gain
access to a system or network resource
• Password Crack - Attempting to reverse calculate a password
• Brute Force - The application of computing and network
resources to try every possible combination of options of a
password
• Dictionary - The dictionary password attack narrows the field
by selecting specific accounts to attack and uses a list of
commonly used passwords (the dictionary) to guide guesses

Slide 52
 Attack Descriptions
• Denial-of-service (DoS) –
– attacker sends a large number of connection or information
requests to a target
– so many requests are made that the target system cannot
handle them successfully along with other, legitimate requests
for service
– may result in a system crash, or merely an inability to perform
ordinary functions
• Distributed Denial-of-service (DDoS) - an attack in which
a coordinated stream of requests is launched against a
target from many locations at the same time

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Slide 54
 Attack Descriptions
• Spoofing - technique used to gain unauthorized
access whereby the intruder sends messages to a
computer with an IP address indicating that the
message is coming from a trusted host
• Man-in-the-Middle - an attacker sniffs packets from
the network, modifies them, and inserts them back
into the network
• Spam - unsolicited commercial e-mail - while many
consider spam a nuisance rather than an attack, it is
emerging as a vector for some attacks

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 Attack Descriptions
• Mail-bombing - another form of e-mail attack that is
also a DoS, in which an attacker routes large quantities
of e-mail to the target
• Sniffers - a program and/or device that can monitor data
traveling over a network. Sniffers can be used both for
legitimate network management functions and for
stealing information from a network
• Social Engineering - within the context of information
security, the process of using social skills to convince
people to reveal access credentials or other valuable
information to the attacker

Slide 58
 Attack Descriptions
• “People are the weakest link. You can have
the best technology; firewalls, intrusion-
detection systems, biometric devices ... and
somebody can call an unsuspecting employee.
That's all she wrote, baby. They got
everything.”
• “brick attack” – the best configured firewall in
the world can’t stand up to a well placed brick

Slide 59
 Attack Descriptions
• Buffer Overflow –
– application error occurs when more data is sent to a buffer
than it can handle
– when the buffer overflows, the attacker can make the target
system execute instructions, or the attacker can take advantage
of some other unintended consequence of the failure
– Usually the attacker fill the overflow buffer with executable
program code to elevate the attacker’s permission to that of an
administrator.

Slide 60
 Attack Descriptions
• Ping of Death Attacks --
– A type of DoS attack
– Attacker creates an ICMP packet that is larger
than the maximum allowed 65,535 bytes.
– The large packet is fragmented into smaller
packets and reassembled at its destination.
– Destination user cannot handle the
reassembled oversized papcket, thereby
causing the system to crash or freeze.

Slide 61
 Attack Descriptions
• Timing Attack –
– relatively new
– works by exploring the contents of a web browser’s cache
– can allow collection of information on access to password-protected
sites
– another attack by the same name involves attempting to intercept
cryptographic elements to determine keys and encryption algorithms

Slide 62