Unit 3: Designing

and Developing
Assessments
 Learning Objective
After learning this lesson, the pre-service
teacher should be able to:
- develop assessment tools that are
learner-appropriate and target-matched;
and
- improve assessment tools based on
assessment data.
 Introduction
Instructional objectives should be
SMARTER objectives, with assessments
aligned to them. Teachers need the
skills to design effective assessment
tools that gather quality evidence for
both formative and summative
evaluations.
 Characteristics of Quality Assessment
Tools

Assessment tools are techniques used to

measure a student's academic abilities, skills,
and/or fluency in a given subject or to
measure one's progress toward academic
proficiency in a specific subject area.
General Principles of Testing (Ebel and
Frisbie, 1999)

1. Measure all instructional objectives. Test

items should align with the learning
objectives to effectively measure students'
progress.
General Principles of Testing (Ebel and
Frisbie, 1999)

2. Cover all the learning tasks. Teachers

should design tests with a diverse range of
items to ensure scores accurately reflect
overall student performance and learning
outcomes.
General Principles of Testing (Ebel and
Frisbie, 1999)

3. Use appropriate test items. The test items

constructed must be appropriate to measure
learning outcomes.
General Principles of Testing (Ebel and
Frisbie, 1999)

4. Make test valid and reliable. The teacher

must create a valid test that accurately
measures student learning and yields
consistent scores when repeated.
General Principles of Testing (Ebel and
Frisbie, 1999)

5. Use test to improve learning. Teachers

should use test scores effectively to enhance
learning by addressing unmet skills or
competencies.
Appropriateness of Assessment Tools

The type of test used should match the

instructional objective or learning outcomes
of the subject matter posed during the
delivery of the instruction. The following are
the types of assessment tools:
Appropriateness of Assessment Tools

1. Objective Test. Students must choose the

correct response or provide a word or
phrase to complete a statement. This
includes true-false, matching, and multiple-
choice questions.
Appropriateness of Assessment Tools

2. Subjective Test. This test allows students

to organize and present original responses,
including short or long answer questions.
Appropriateness of Assessment Tools

3. Performance Assessment. This

assessment requires students to complete
real-world tasks, demonstrating the practical
application of essential knowledge and skills.
Appropriateness of Assessment Tools

3. Performance Assessment. This

assessment requires students to complete
real-world tasks, demonstrating the practical
application of essential knowledge and skills.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
There are two general types of test item to
use in achievement test using paper and
pencil test. It is classified as selection- type
items and supply-type items.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
Selection-type or Objective Test items
a) Multiple Choice
b) Matching Type
c) True or False
Supply-type or Subjective Test items
d) Completion Type or Short Answer
e) Essay
f) Problem Solving
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
• Selection-type or Objective Test Items
a) Multiple – Choice Test
A multiple-choice test assesses knowledge,
comprehension, and application and is
widely used for measuring student
achievement. Each item consists of three
parts: the stem (problem or question), the
keyed option (correct answer), and the
distractors or foil (incorrect alternatives).
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
Guidelines in Constructing Multiple-choice Test
1. Align with Objectives – Each question should
assess a single, clearly written objective.
2. Clear and Focused Stem – Base each item on
a specific problem, keeping the stem clear,
concise, and free of irrelevant material. Use
positive wording when possible.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
Guidelines in Constructing Multiple-choice Test
3. Well-Designed Alternatives – Ensure answer choices
are:
- Clearly worded and concise.
- Homogeneous in content and parallel in form.
- Free from clues, including grammatical inconsistencies,
keyword hints, and specific determiners.
- Similar in length
- Plausible, avoiding “all of the above” or “none of the
above” when possible.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
Guidelines in Constructing Multiple-choice
Test
4. Balanced and Randomized Answers –
Distribute the correct answer evenly across
positions.
5. Clarity and Readability – Use proper
grammar, punctuation, and spelling while
avoiding unnecessarily difficult vocabulary.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
Guidelines in Constructing Multiple-choice
Test
6. Review and Improve – Analyze the
effectiveness of each item after test
administration.
 Examples of poorly made multiple-
choice Items

What is the best way to study?

a) Reading the textbook
b) Taking notes
c) Reviewing with friends
d) It depends
 Examples of poorly made multiple-
choice Items

What is the powerhouse of the cell?

a) A small organelle that produces energy and is
found in almost all eukaryotic cells
b) Mitochondria
c) Ribosomes
d) Nucleus
 Examples of poorly made multiple-
choice Items

Which of the following is NOT a benefit of

exercise?
a) Improved cardiovascular health
b) Increased energy levels
c) Weakening of muscles
d) Better mental health
 Examples of poorly made multiple-
choice Items

What is 2 + 2?
a) 4
b) 5
c) 100
d) Banana
 Examples of Multiple-choice Items
Knowledge Level
What is the powerhouse of the cell?
a) Nucleus
b) Mitochondria
c) Ribosome
d) Golgi apparatus
 Examples of Multiple-choice Items
Knowledge Level
What is the main purpose of photosynthesis?
a) To break down glucose for energy
b) To absorb nutrients from soil
c) To convert sunlight into chemical energy
d) To produce carbon dioxide for plant
respiration
 Examples of Multiple-choice Items

Comprehension Level
Which of the following best explains why ice
floats on water?
a) Ice has a higher mass than liquid water.
b) Ice is denser than liquid water.
c) Ice has the same density as liquid water.
d) Ice is less dense than liquid water.
 Examples of Multiple-choice Items
Application Level
A patient has a blood sugar level of 200 mg/dL
after fasting for 8 hours. What condition does
this most likely indicate?
a) Normal blood sugar levels
b) Hypoglycemia
c) Diabetes mellitus
d) Dehydration
 Examples of Multiple-choice Items
Analysis Level
Which of the following is a primary function of
the skeletal system?
a) Generating electrical impulses
b) Producing oxygen
c) Providing structural support
d) Regulating blood sugar levels
 Advantages of Multiple-choice Test
• Measures learning outcomes from the knowledge to
evaluation level.
• Scoring is highly objective, easy, and reliable.
• Scores are more reliable than subjective type of test.
• Measures broad samples of content within a short
span of time.
• Distracters can provide diagnostic information.
• Item analysis can reveal the difficulty of an item and
can discriminate the good and poor performing
students.
 Disadvantages of Multiple-choice Test
• Time consuming to construct a good item.
• Difficult to find effective and plausible distracters.
• Scores can be influenced by the reading ability of the
examinees.
• In some cases, there is more than one justifiable
correct answer.
• Ineffective in assessing the problem solving skills of
the students.
• Not applicable when assessing the students' ability to
organize and express ideas.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
• Selection-type or Objective Test Items
b) Matching Type Test
Matching type item consists of two columns.
Column A contains the descriptions and
must be placed at the left side while column
b contains the options and placed at the
right side.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
Guidelines in Constructing Matching Type Test
1. Clear and Concise Content – Keep descriptions
and options short, specific, and homogeneous.
2. Standard Layout – Place descriptions (Column
A) on the left and options (Column B) on the right
for easy reference.
3. Reduce Guessing – Provide more options than
descriptions or specify if options can be used
multiple times.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
Guidelines in Constructing Matching Type Test
4. Clear Instructions – Clearly state the matching
criteria and marking method to streamline scoring.
5. Minimize Correct Answer Overlap – Avoid
multiple correct matches to prevent confusion.
6. Use Full Names – Include first and last names
when using people’s names to ensure clarity.
7. Number & Letter Format – Use numbers for
descriptions and capital letters for options to aid
readability.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
Guidelines in Constructing Matching Type Test
8. Logical Arrangement – Order options
alphabetically or chronologically for smoother
matching.
9. Page Formatting – Ensure all matching items
appear on the same page.
10. Appropriate Item Limits – Use 3–7 items for
elementary and up to 17 items for
secondary/tertiary levels to maintain
effectiveness.
Example of poorly made Matching Type
Test
Directions: Match Column A with Column B.
Write the letter of the correct answer.
 Example of Matching Type Test
Directions: Match the scientist in Column A with their
discovery or invention in Column B. Write the letter of the
correct answer on the space provided.
Advantages of Matching Type Test
• It is simpler to construct than a multiple-choice type
of test.
• It reduces the effect of guessing compared to the
multiple-choice and true or false type of tests.
• It is appropriate to assess the association between
facts.
• Provide easy, accurate, efficient, objective and
reliable test scores.
• More content can be covered in the given set of test.
 Disadvantages of Matching Type Test
• It measures only simple recall or
memorization of information.
• It is difficult to construct due to problems in
selecting the descriptions and options.
• It assesses only low level of cognitive domain
such as knowledge and comprehension.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
• Selection-type or Objective Test Items
c) True or False Test
A true or false test requires examinees to
determine whether a statement is correct or
incorrect. It is effective for assessing
recognition-based and is best suited for
evaluating knowledge and comprehension
when only two plausible options exist.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
Guidelines in Constructing True or False Test
1. Keep sentences concise – Remove unnecessary
words.
2. Avoid trivial or opinion-based questions – If
necessary, attribute opinions to a source.
3. Ensure each item contains only one idea –
Except when showing cause-and-effect
relationships.
4. Use cause-and-effect statements appropriately
to establish relationships.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
Guidelines in Constructing True or False Test
5. Avoid negatives and double negatives – If
unavoidable, emphasize negative words (bold or
underline).
6. Avoid absolute determiners like "never," "always,"
"all," and "none," as they often indicate false
statements.
7. Avoid vague determiners like "some," "sometimes,"
and "may," as they often indicate true statements.
8. Balance true and false items – Ensure an equal
number of each.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
Guidelines in Constructing True or False Test
9. Avoid grammatical clues – Watch for articles
("a," "an," "the") that hint at the correct answer.
10. Do not copy statements directly from
textbooks.
11. Avoid predictable patterns – Do not arrange
answers in obvious sequences (e.g., TTTTTFFFFF).
12. Provide clear directions – Indicate how
students should mark their answers.
 Examples of True or False Type of Test
(Poorly constructed)
Direction: Determine if the statement is true or false. Write
T before the statement if the statement is true, otherwise,
write F if false.
_1. The sun is hot.
_2. Chocolate is the best flavor of ice cream.
_3. It is not uncommon for students to struggle with math.
_4. All mammals give birth to live young.
_5. The mitochondria is responsible for producing energy in
the cell.
 Examples of True or False Type of Test
(Poorly constructed)
Direction: Determine if the statement is true or false. Write
T before the statement if the statement is true, otherwise,
write F if false.
_1. The Earth orbits the Sun. (T)
_2. Water boils at 100°C at sea level. (T)
_3. Plants need sunlight for photosynthesis. (T)
_4. The moon produces its own light. (F)
_5. The human heart has four chambers. (T)
_6. The Pacific Ocean is the smallest ocean. (F)
 Examples of True or False Type of Test
(Well constructed)
Direction: Determine if the statement is true or false. Write
T before the statement if the statement is true, otherwise,
write F if false.
_1. The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean on Earth. (T)
_2. The human heart consists of four chambers. (T)
_3. Some reptiles give birth to live young instead of laying
eggs. (T)
_4. The speed of light is faster than the speed of sound. (T)
_5. The chemical symbol for gold is Ag. (F)
Advantages of True or False type of Test

• It covers a lot of content in a short span of time.

• It is easier to prepare compared to multiple-
choice and matching type of test.
• It is easier to score because it can be scored
objectively compared to a test that depends on
the judgment of the rater(s).
• It is useful when there are two alternatives only.
• The score is more reliable than essay type of
test.
Disadvantages of True or False type of Test

• Limited only to low level of thinking skills such

as knowledge and comprehension, or
recognition or recall information.
• High probability of guessing the correct
answer compared to multiple-choice which
consists of more than 2 choices.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
• Supply-type or Subjective Test Items
a) Completion Type or Short Answer Test
A Completion or Short Answer Test requires
examinees to supply the correct word,
symbol, or number instead of selecting from
options. It can be formatted as a question or
a fill-in-the-blank statement.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
Guidelines in Constructing Short Answer Test
1. Require a Clear, Concise Answer – Use single-
word or brief responses, avoiding vague
statements with multiple possible answers.
2. Ensure Precision – Use accurate language
relevant to the subject.
3. Omit Only Key Words – Remove only essential
words to maintain clarity and meaning.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
Guidelines in Constructing Short Answer Test
4. Place Blanks at the End – Avoid blanks at
the beginning or middle of a statement.
5. Use Direct Questions – Prefer complete
questions over incomplete statements.
6. Specify Units for Numerical Answers –
Clearly indicate required measurement units.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
Guidelines in Constructing Short Answer Test
7. Ensure Accuracy – The expected answer
should be factually correct.
8. Avoid Grammatical Clues – Ensure sentence
structure doesn’t hint at the answer.
9. Avoid Textbook Sentences – Reword
questions to promote understanding rather than
memorization.
 Examples of Short Answer Test
(Poorly Made)
Question Form
Direction: Write your answer on the space provided before
each item.
______1. What is an important planet?
______2. What is the biggest one?
______3. How far is Earth from the Sun?
______4. Is Mars the fourth planet from the Sun?
______5. What planets contains diamond?
 Examples of Short Answer Test
(Well Constructed)
Question Form
Direction: Write your answer on the space provided before
each item.
______1. Which planet is known as the "Red Planet"?
______2. What is the largest planet in the Solar System?
______3. Which planet is closest to the Sun?
______4. How far is Earth from the Sun in astronomical
units (AU)?
______5. What is the fourth planet from the Sun?
 Examples of Short Answer Test
(Poorly Made)
Completion Form
Direction: Write your answer on the space provided before
each item.
1. The largest object in space is _____.
2. The Sun is ___ hot.
3. The ___ revolves around the ___ due to ___.
4. ___ is the force that keeps planets in orbit around the
Sun.
5. The mitochondria is the ___ of the cell.
 Examples of Short Answer Test
(Well Constructed)
Completion Form
Direction: Write your answer on the space provided before
each item.
1. The planet known as the "Red Planet" is ___.
2. The largest planet in the Solar System is ___.
3. The process by which plants convert sunlight into energy
is called ___.
4. The force that pulls objects toward Earth's surface is ___.
5. The chemical symbol for water is ___.
Advantages of a Completion or Short Answer
Test
• It covers a broad range of topic in a short span of time.
• It is easier to prepare and less time consuming compared
to multiple choice and matching type of test.
• It can assess effectively the lower level of Bloom's
Taxonomy. It can assess recall of information, rather than
recognition.
• It reduces the possibility of guessing the correct answer
because it requires recall compared to true or false items
and multiple-choice items.
• It covers greater amount of contents than matching type
test.
 Disadvantages of a Completion or Short
Answer Test
• It is only appropriate for questions that can be answered
with short responses.
• There is a difficulty in scoring when the questions are not
prepared properly and clearly. The question should be
clearly stated so that the answer of the student is clear.
• It can assess only knowledge, comprehension and
application levels in Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive
domain.
• It is not adaptable in measuring complex learning
outcomes.
• Scoring is tedious and time consuming.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
• Supply-type or Subjective Test Items
b) Essay
Essay tests assess students' ability to organize and
present original ideas. There are two types:
Extended Response Essays, which allow flexibility
in length and complexity, making them ideal for
evaluating synthesis and critical thinking; and
Restricted Response Essays, which limit content
and format based on specific guidelines.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
Guidelines in Essay Test
1. Measure Complex Learning Outcomes – Use
essay questions to assess higher-order thinking skills.
2. Align with Learning Objectives – Ensure questions
directly relate to the intended learning outcomes.
3. Provide Clear Instructions – Clearly define the
task and desired response.
4. Be Precise and Focused – State questions
accurately to guide students toward the expected
answer.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
Guidelines in Essay Test
5. Ensure Consistency – Require all students to
answer the same question.
6. Indicate Time and Points – Specify the allotted
time and scoring weight for each question.
7. Set Answer Guidelines – Define word count,
number of paragraphs, or sentence limits.
8. Clarify the Scoring System – Share grading
criteria with students beforehand.
Example of Essay Test (Extended Response)
(Poorly Made)
Write everything you know
about World War II.
Example of Essay Test (Extended Response)
(Well Constructed)
Discuss the causes of World War
II and evaluate how economic,
political, and social factors
contributed to the conflict.
Provide specific historical
examples to support your
answer.
Example of Essay Test (Restricted Response)
(Poorly Made)
Describe democracy.
Example of Essay Test (Restricted Response)
(Well Constructed)
In 3–5 sentences, define
democracy and explain two
key principles that make it
effective in modern societies.
 Advantages of Essay Test
• It is easier to prepare and less time consuming compared
to other paper and pencil tests.
• It measures higher-order thinking skills (analysis,
synthesis and evaluation).
• It allows students' freedom to express individuality in
answering the given question.
• The students have a chance to express their own ideas in
order to plan their own answer.
• It reduces guessing answer compared to any objective
type of test.
• It presents more realistic task to the students.
• It emphasizes on the integration and application of ideas.
 Disadvantages of Essay Test
• It cannot provide an objective measure of the
achievement of the students.
• It needs so much time to grade and prepare
scoring criteria.
• The scores are usually not reliable most
especially without scoring criteria.
• It measures limited amount of contents and
objectives.
• Low variation of scores.
• It usually encourages bluffing.
 Suggestions for Grading Essay Test

• The student's identity should remain anonymous

while his/her paper is being graded.
• Read and evaluate each student's answer to the
same question before grading the next question.
• Provide students with general grading criteria by
which they will be evaluated prior to the
examination.
• Use analytic scoring or holistic scoring.
• Write your comments on their papers.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
• Supply-type or Subjective Test Items
c) Problem Solving
A problem-solving or computational test
requires students to demonstrate work
procedures and solutions. Teachers may
assign full or partial credit based on the
accuracy and quality of the work shown.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
Guidelines in Problem Solving Test
1. Clearly Define the Problem – Identify and
explain the problem concisely.
2. Provide Clear Directions – Specify the
required response type and whether work
procedures must be shown for credit.
 Types of Teacher-made Tests
Guidelines in Problem Solving Test
3. Structure the Question Well – Separate
item parts, indicate point values, and use
realistic scenarios.
4. Ensure Objectivity – Frame questions that
allow experts to agree on the best solution
and work procedures.
5. Verify Accuracy – Solve each problem
beforehand to check for correctness.
 Example of Problem Solving Test
(Poorly Made)
Direction: Analyze and solve each problem. Show
your solution neatly and clearly by applying the
strategy indicated in each item. Each item
corresponds to 10 points.

1. A car travels fast. How long will it take to reach

the destination?
2. A rectangle has a length of 10. Find its area.
 Example of Problem Solving Test
(Well Constructed)
Direction: Analyze and solve each problem. Show
your solution neatly and clearly by applying the
strategy indicated in each item. Each item
corresponds to 10 points.
1. A car is traveling at a constant speed of 60 km/h
on a straight road. If the destination is 180 km
away, how long will it take to reach the
destination? Show your work for full credit.
2. A rectangle has a length of 10 cm and a width
of 5 cm. Calculate its area and show your work.
Learning Target and Assessment Method
Match
Table of Specification
A Table of Specification (TOS) is a chart that outlines
test content, cognitive levels, and item types to
ensure validity and reliability. It helps test
constructors align assessments with learning
outcomes, prevents systematic errors, ensures an
adequate number of questions for dependable
results, and serves as a guide for test construction.
Different Formats of Table of Specification

Format 1 of a Table of Specification

This format is composed of the specific
objectives, the cognitive level, type of test used,
the item number, and the total points needed in
each item.
Different Formats of Table of Specification

• Specific Objectives refer to the intended

learning outcomes stated as specific
instructional objective covering a particular
test topic.
• Cognitive Level pertains to the intellectual skill
or ability to correctly answer a test item using
Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives.
Different Formats of Table of Specification

• Type of Test Item identifies the type or kind of

test a test item belongs to. Examples of
entries in this column could be multiple-
choice, true or false, or even essay.
• Item Number simply identifies the question
number as it appears in the test.
• Total Points summarize the score given to a
particular test.
a) Format 1 of a Table of Specification

Specific Cognitive Type of Test Item Total Points

Objectives Level Number

Solve Application Multiple- 1 and 2 4 points

worded choice
problems in
consecutive
integers
 b) Format 2 of a Table of Specification
(One-way Table of Specification)
Contents Number of Number of Cognitive Level Test Item
Class Sessions Items Distribution
K-C A HOTS

Basic Concepts 1 2 1-2

of Fraction

Addition of 1 2 3-4
Fraction
Subtraction of 1 2 5-6
Fraction
Multiplication 3 6 7-12
and Division of
Fraction
Application/ 4 8 13-20
Problem Solving
TOTAL 10 20
 c) Format 3 of Table of Specification
(Two-way Table of Specification)
Contents Number Krathwohl’s Cognitive Level Total Test Item
of Class Points Distribution
Sessions Remembe
ring
Understa
nding
Applyin
g
Analyzi
ng
Evalua
ting
Crea
ting

Basic Concepts 1 2 1-2

of Fraction

Addition of 1 4 3-6
Fraction
Subtraction of 1 4 7-10
Fraction
Multiplication 3 12 11-22
and Division of
Fraction
Application/ 4 8 23-30
Problem Solving
TOTAL 15 30
 Preparing a Table of Specification

1. Selecting the learning outcomes to be

measured. Identify the necessary instructional
objectives needed to answer the test items
correctly.
2. Make an outline of the subject matter to be
covered in the test. The length of the test will
depend on the areas covered in its content and
the time needed to answer.
 Preparing a Table of Specification
3. Decide on the number of items per subtopic.
Use this formula to determine the number of
items to be constructed for each subtopic.
• Number of items = (number of class sessions x
desired total number of items)/total number
of class sessions
4. Make the two-way chart as shown in the
format 2 and format 3 of a Table of
Specification.
 Preparing a Table of Specification

5. Construct the test items. A classroom teacher

should always follow the general principle of
constructing test items.
 Assessment Tools Development
Assessment Development Cycle
1. Planning Stage
– Determine who will use the assessment results
and how they will use them.
– Identify the learning targets to be assessed.
– Select the appropriate assessment method or
methods.
– Determine the sample size.
 Assessment Tools Development
Assessment Development Cycle
2. Development Stage
– Develop or select items, exercises, tasks, and
scoring procedures.
– Review and critique the overall assessment for
quality before use.
 Assessment Tools Development
Assessment Development Cycle
3. Use Stage
– Conduct and score the assessment.
– Revise as needed for future use.
 Assessment Tools Development
Steps in Developing Assessment Tools

1. Examine the instructional objectives of the

topics previously discussed.

2. Make a table of specification (TOS).

 Assessment Tools Development
Steps in Developing Assessment Tools
3. Construct the test items.
- Begin writing items far enough or in advance.
- Match items to intended outcomes at
appropriate level of difficulty.
- Be sure each item deals with an important
aspect of the content area.
 Assessment Tools Development
Steps in Developing Assessment Tools
3. Construct the test items.
- Be sure the problem posed is clear and
unambiguous.
- Be sure that the item is independent with all
other items.
- Be sure the item has one or best answer.
 Assessment Tools Development
Steps in Developing Assessment Tools
3. Construct the test items.
- Prevent unintended clues to an answer
- Avoid replication of the textbook in writing test items
- Avoid trick or catch questions in an achievement test.
- Try to write items that require higher-order thinking skills.
- Try to write items that require higher-order thinking skills.
 Assessment Tools Development
Steps in Developing Assessment Tools
4. Assemble the test items
– Group all test items with similar format.
– Arrange test items from easy to difficult.
– Space the test items for easy reading.
– Keep items and option in the same page.
– Place the illustrations near the description.
– Check the answer key.
– Decide where to record the answer.
 Assessment Tools Development
Steps in Developing Assessment Tools
5. Check the assembled test items.

6. Write directions.

7. Make the answer key.

8. Analyze and improve the test items.

 Assessment Tools Development
Item Analysis

Item analysis evaluates student responses to

test items to assess their quality. It helps identify
good items to retain and defective ones that
need improvement, revision, or rejection.
 Assessment Tools Development
Uses of Item Analysis

• Item analysis data provide a basis for efficient class

discussion of the test results.
• Item analysis data provide a basis for remedial work.
• Item analysis data provide a basis for general improvement
of classroom instruction.
• Item analysis data provide a basis for increased skills in test
construction.
• Item analysis procedures provide a basis for constructing
test bank.
 Assessment Tools Development
Types of Quantitative Item Analysis
1. Difficulty Index
- It refers to the proportion of students in the
upper and lower groups who answered an item
correctly. A higher proportion indicates that
more students have learned the subject being
assessed.
Index of Difficulty Formula
Index of Diff = (nH + nL)/n
 Assessment Tools Development
Types of Quantitative Item Analysis
1. Difficulty Index
Level of Difficulty
To determine the level of difficulty of an item,
find first the difficulty index using the formula
and identify the level of difficulty using the
range given.
 Assessment Tools Development
Types of Quantitative Item Analysis
2. Discrimination Index
- The discrimination index measures an item's
ability to distinguish between students who
understand the lesson and those who do not.
This index helps assess an item's validity and
indicates how well it reflects overall knowledge
or skill mastery.
Index of Discrimination Formula
Index of Disc = (nH – nL)2/n
 Types of Discrimination Index
• Positive discrimination happens when more
students in the upper group got the item
correctly than those students in the lower
group.
• Negative discrimination occurs when more
students in the lower group got the item
correctly than the students in the upper
group.
 Types of Discrimination Index
• Zero discrimination happens when a number
of students in the upper group and lower
group who answer the test correctly are equal
 Steps in Solving Difficulty Index and
Discrimination Index
a. Arrange the scores from highest to lowest.
b. Separate the scores in the upper group and
lower group
- if a class consists of 30 students who takes an
exam, arrange their scores from highest to
lowest, then divide them into two groups.
- Other literature suggested to use 27%, 30%, or
33% of the students for the upper group and
lower group.
 Steps in Solving Difficulty Index and
Discrimination Index
b. Separate the scores in the upper group and
lower group
- However, in the Licensure Examination for
Teachers (LET) the test developers always used
27% of the students who participated in the
examination for the upper and lower groups.
 Steps in Solving Difficulty Index and
Discrimination Index
c. Count the number of those who chose the
alternatives in the upper and lower group for
each item and record the information using the
template:
 Steps in Solving Difficulty Index and
Discrimination Index
d. Compute the value of the difficulty index and
the discrimination index and also the analysis of
each response in the distracters.

e. Make an analysis for each item.

 Analysis of Response Options
It is very important to examine the performance
of each option in a multiple-choice item.
Through this, you can determine whether the
distracters or incorrect options are effective or
attractive to those who do not know the correct
answer.
 Analysis of Response Options
Distracter Analysis

1. Distracter. It is the term used for the incorrect

options in the multiple-choice type of test while
the correct answer represents the key.
2. Miskeyed item. The test item is a potential
miskey if there are more students from the upper
group who choose the incorrect options than the
key.
 Analysis of Response Options
Distracter Analysis

3. Guessing item. Students from the upper

group have equal spread of choices among the
given alternatives.
4. Ambiguous item. This happen when more
students from the upper group choose equally
an incorrect option and the keyed answer.
 How to Improve the Test Item

Example 1. A class is composed of 40

students. Divide the group into two. Option B
is the correct answer. Based from the given
data on the table, as a teacher, what would
you do with the test item?
Options A B C D E
Upper 3 10 4 0 3
Group
Lower 4 4 8 0 4
Group
 How to Improve the Test Item
1. Compute the difficulty index.
2. Compute the discrimination index
3. Make an analysis about the level of difficulty,
discrimination and distracters.
– Only 35% of the examinees got the answer correctly,
hence, the item is difficult.
– More students from the upper group got the answer
correctly, hence, it has positive discrimination.
– Retain options A, C, and E because most of the students
who did not perform well in the overall examination
selected it. Those options attract most students from the
lower group
 How to Improve the Test Item

Example 2. Below is the result of an item

analysis for a test item in Mathematics. Are
you going to reject, revise or retain the test
item?
Options A B C D E

Upper 4 3 4 3 6
Group
Lower 3 4 3 4 5
Group
 How to Improve the Test Item
- Only 18% of the examinees got the answer
correctly, hence, the item is very difficult.
- More students from the upper group got the
answer correctly, hence, it has a positive
discrimination of 5%
- Students respond about equally to all
alternatives, an indication that they are
guessing.
- If the test item is well-written but too difficult,
reteach the material to the class.
 How to Improve the Test Item
Conclusion: Reject the item because it is very
difficult and the discrimination index is very
poor, and option A and B are not effective
distracters.
 Test Reliability

Reliability refers to the consistency with

which it yields the same rank for
individuals who take the test more than
once (Kubiszyn and Borich, 2007). That is,
how consistent test results or other
assessment results from one
measurement to another.
 Factors Affecting Reliability of a Test

• Length of the test

• Moderate item difficulty
• Objective scoring
• Heterogeneity of the student group
• Limited time
Methods of Establishing Reliability of a
Test

1. Test-retest Method. A type of reliability

determined by administering the same test
twice to the same group of students with
any time interval between the tests.
Methods of Establishing Reliability of a
Test

2. Equivalent/Parallel/Alternate Forms. A
type of reliability determined by
administering two different but equivalent
forms of the test to the same group of
students in close succession.
Methods of Establishing Reliability of a
Test

3. Split-half Method. Administer test once

and score two equivalent halves of the test.
To split the test into halves that are
equivalent, the usual procedure is to score
the even-numbered and the odd-numbered
test item separately.
 Methods of Establishing Reliability of a
Test

4. Kuder-Richardson Formula. Administer

the test once. The KR-20 formula is
applicable only in situations where students'
responses are scored dichotomously, and
therefore, is most useful with traditional test
items that are scored as right or wrong, true
or false, and yes or no type.
 Reliability Coefficient
• Reliability coefficient is a measure of the
amount of error associated with the test scores.
Reliability Coefficient has the following
description:
– The range of the reliability coefficient is from 0 to 1.0;
– The acceptable range value is 0.60 or higher;
– The higher the value of the reliability coefficient, the
more reliable the overall test scores;
– Higher reliability indicates that the test items
measure the same thing.
Interpreting Reliability Coefficient

• The group variability will affect the size of

the reliability coefficient
• Scoring reliability limits test score
reliability.
• Test length affects test score reliability.
• Item difficulty affects test score reliability.
Level of Reliability Coefficient
Example 1. Prof. Peter conducted a test
to his 10 students in Elementary
Statistics class twice after one-day
interval. The test given after one day is
exactly the same test given the first
time. Scores below were gathered in
the first test (FT) and second test (ST).
Using test-retest method, is the test
reliable? Show the complete solution.
 Student FT ST
1 36 38
2 26 34
3 38 38
4 15 27
5 17 25
6 28 26
7 32 35
8 35 36
9 12 19
10 35 38

Using the Pearson r formula, find Ʃx, Ʃy, Ʃxy, Ʃx2, Ʃy2
 Analysis
The reliability coefficient using the
Pearson r = 0.91 means that it has a
very high reliability. The scores of the
10 students conducted twice with one-
day interval are consistent. Hence, the
test has a very high reliability.
Example 2. Prof. Peter conducted a
test to his 10 students in his
Chemistry class. The test was given
only once. The scores of the students
in odd and even items below were
gathered, (O) odd items and (E) even
items. Using split-half method, is the
test reliable? Show the complete
solution.
 Odd(x) Even(y)
15 20
19 17
20 24
25 21
20 23
18 22
19 25
26 24
20 18
18 17

Use the Spearman-Brown Formula to find the reliability of the whole

test, find the Ʃx, Ʃy, Ʃxy, Ʃx2, Ʃy2 to solve the reliability of the odd and
even test items.
Steps:
1. Use the Pearson Product Correlation
Coefficient Formula to solve for r.

2. Find the reliability of the original test

using the formula:

.
Analysis
The reliability coefficient using
Brown formula is 0.50, which is
questionable reliability. Hence, the
test items should be revised.
Example 3. Ms. Jane administered
a 40-item test in English for her
Grade VI pupils. Below are the
scores of 15 pupils, find the
reliability using the Kuder-
Richardson formula.
Student Score(x)
1 16
2 25
3 35
4 39
5 25
6 18
7 19
8 22
9 33
10 36
11 20
12 17
13 26
14 35
15 39
Steps:
1. Solve the mean and the standard
deviation of the scores using the given
table.
Analysis
The reliability coefficient using KR-
21 formula is 0.90 which means
that the test has a very good
reliability. Meaning, the test is very
good for a classroom test.
 Test Validity

Validity is the extent to which a test

measures what it is supposed to
measure.
 Types of Validity

Face Validity. It is the extent to which a

measurement method appears “on its
face” to measure the construct of
interest. Face validity is at best a very
weak kind of evidence that a
measurement method is measuring
what it is supposed to.
 Types of Validity

Content Validity. A type of validation

that refers to the relationship between
test and the instructional objectives,
establishes content so that the test
measures what is supposed to
measure.
 Types of Validity

Criterion-related Validity. A type of

validation that refers to the extent to
which scores from a test relate to
theoretically similar measures.
 Types of Validity

Construct Validity. A type of validation

that refers to the measure of the extent
to which a test measures a theoretical
and unobservable variable qualities
such as intelligence, math achievement,
performance anxiety, and the like, over
a period of time on the basis of
gathering evidence.
 Important Things to Remember about
Validity

• Validity refers to the decisions we

make, and not to the test itself or to
the measurement.
• Like reliability, validity is not an all-or-
nothing concept; it is never totally
absent or absolutely perfect.
 Important Things to Remember about
Validity

• A validity estimate, called a validity

coefficient, refers to specific type of
validity. It ranges between 0 and 1.
• Validity can never be finally
determined; it is specific to each
administration of the test.
 Validity Coefficient

The validity coefficient is the computed

value of the rxy. In theory, the validity
coefficient has values like the
correlation that ranges from 0 to 1. In
practice, most of the validity scores are
usually small and they range from 0.3
to 0.5, few exceed 0.6 to 0.7.
 Validity Coefficient

Another way of interpreting the

findings is the squared correlation
coefficient (rxy)2, this is called coefficient
of determination.
Example: Teacher Peter develops a 45-
item test and he wants to determine if his
test is valid. He takes another test that is
already acknowledged for its validity and
uses it as criterion. He conducted these
two sets of test to his 15 students. The
following table shows the results of the
two tests. Is the test valid? Find the
validity coefficient using Pearson r and the
coefficient of determination.
Teacher Peter Test (x) Criterion Test (y)
12 16
22 25
23 31
25 25
28 29
30 28
33 35
42 40
41 45
37 40
26 33
44 45
36 40
29 35
37 41
 Interpretation
The correlation coefficient is 0.94,
which means that the validity of the
test is high, or 88.36% of the variance
in the students' performance can be
attributed to the test
Thank
You!