Chapter 2

2. Formulation of Research
Problem and hypothesis
2.1. Research Problem: the difference between exiting
A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher
experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to
obtain a solution for the same.
A research problem does exist if the following conditions are met with
I. There must be an individual (or a group or an organization), let us call it ‘I,’ to
whom the problem can be attributed. The individual or the organization, as the
case may be, occupies an environment, say ‘N’, which is defined by values of
the uncontrolled variables, Yj
II. There must be at least two courses of action, say C1 and C2, to be pursued. A
course of action is defined by one or more values of the controlled variables. For
example, the number of items purchased at a specified time is said to be one
course of action
III. There must be at least two possible outcomes, say O1 and
O2 , of the course of action, of which one should be preferable
to the other.
In other words, this means that there must be at least one
outcome that the researcher wants, i.e., an objective.
(iv) The courses of action available must provides some
chance of obtaining the objective, but they cannot provide the
same chance, otherwise the choice would not matter.
• Over and above these conditions, the individual or the organization can be said to have the
problem only if ‘I’ does not know what course of action is best, i.e., ‘I’, must be in doubt
about the solution
• We can, thus, state the components1 of a research problem as under:
• There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the
problem. There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants
nothing, one cannot have a problem.
• There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the objective(s)
one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means available to a
researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem
• There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of
alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative
efficiency of the possible alternatives.
• There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains. Thus, a research
problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the given
problem,
Significance of defining the problem
a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. defining a research
problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and is a step of the highest
importance. Well defined problems signifies as
• To distinguish relevant data from the irrelevant ones.
• To enable the researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem
may create hurdles(obstacles) .
• To Enhance accuracy of the research a
• To find answers to all questions like ;
What data are to be collected?
What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied?
What relations are to be explored.
What techniques are to be used for the purpose?
• The definition of a problem sets the direction of the study.

• The definition reveals the methodology or procedure of the study.

• The definition helps the researcher to control subjectivity or biases of the

researcher.

• The definition of the problem suggests and specifies the variables to be

taken up into the investigation through a problem involved into so many
variables.

• The-definition makes the research work practicable

 Technique Involved In Defining A Problem
defining a problem involves the task of laying down boundaries within which a
researcher shall study the problem with a pre-determined objective in view.
Defining a research problem is a crucial part of a research study .
The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps
generally one after the other( five steps of defining a research problem)
(i) Statement of the problem in a general way;
(ii)Understanding the nature of the problem;
(iii) Surveying the available literature
(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions; and
(v) Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition
 (i) Statement of the problem in a general way:

Looking into the subject matter immensely . In case of social research,

Through;

• Field observation ,

• pilot survey or

• preliminary study

Then the researcher can himself state the problem or he can seek the guidance
of the guide or the subject expert in accomplishing this task.
 II. Understanding the nature of the problem
• Is the second step in defining problem . Through
Undertaking discussion with tho se who first raised it in order to find out
how the problem originally came about and with what objectives in view
Undertaking a discussion with those who have a good knowledge of the
problem concerned or similar other problems
Viewing critically , the environment within which the problem is to be
studied and understood
(iii) Surveying the available literature:
All available literature concerning the problem at hand must
necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the
research problem is given.
Creating familiarity with relevant theories in the field, reports and
• A researcher may review two types of literature—the conceptual
literature concerning the concepts and theories, and
• the empirical literature consisting of studies made earlier which are
similar to the one proposed/ reviewing of research already undertaken
on related problems
• This is done to find out what data and other materials, if any, are
available for operational purposes.
• “Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow the problem
itself as well as the technique that might be used.”.
• This would also help a researcher to know if there are certain gaps in
the theories, or whether the existing theories applicable to the problem
under study are inconsistent with each other,
• whether the findings of the different studies do not follow a pattern
(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions concerning a problem :
• a researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and others
who have enough experience in the same area or in working on
similar problems.
• This is quite often known as an experience survey.
(v) Rephrasing the research problem:
the researcher to narrow a problem into down and
phrase the problem in operational terms
 Generally the source of research problem are

• It is a serious responsibility to commit oneself to a problem that will inevitably

require much time and energy and which is so academically significant.
• Personal experiences of the investigator in the field of education are the main
source for identifying suitable problem

• The other source of problem which is most frequently used by the investigator
as suggested by the supervisors, is the extensive study of available literature-
research abstracts, journals, hand-books of research international abstracts etc
• In the choice of a suitable problem, the researcher has to decide his field of investigation. He
should study the field intensively in the specific area, this may enable him to identify a
problem from the specific field
• The new innovations, technological changes and curricular
developments are constantly bringing new problems and new-
opportunities for Social Studies Research.
• The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor, experts
of the field and most experienced person of the field. They may
suggest most significant problem of the area.
• He can discuss certain issues of the area to emerge a problem.
• It is a general practice that researchers suggest some problems in
their research reports.
The researcher can pick up a suitable problem for his own study.
 SELECTING THE PROBLEM

• The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected It cannot be
borrowed , rather A problem must spring from the researcher’s mind like a plant
springing from its own seed. The first step of a research process is to identify a
problem. The selection of a problem is governed by reflective thinking Not by
emotion or tradtion
The following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a research
problem or a subject for research
• Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen
• Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher
• Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided
• The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related
research material or sources of research are within one’s reach
• The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher,
the costs involved, the time factor are few other criteria that must also be
2.1.2. Criteria of a good Research Problem

• A good statement of a problem is based on some assumptions. An

assumption is the supposition that it is taken for granted to better
establish the scope, frame of reference and conditions under which the
study will be conducted
• It makes the research work feasible.
• It delimits the scope of the problem.
• It establishes the proper frame of reference.
• It sets forth certain conditions of the study.
• It aids in the development of testable hypotheses.
• It helps in establishing the population and extent of generalization.
• It also determines the statistical limits for accepting and rejecting of
hypotheses
 2.2. Research Hypothesis
• Is a tentative solution of a problem
• The word hypothesis is made up of two Greek roots which mean that it is
some sort of ‘sub-statements’,for it is the presumptive statement of a
proposition, which the investigation seeks to prove
• The word hypothesis consists of two words: Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis
Hypo’ means tentative or subject to the verification and ‘Thesis’ means
statement about solution of a problem
Another meaning of the word hypothesis which is composed of two word
‘Hypo’ means composition of two or more variables which is to be verified.
‘Thesis’ means position of these variables in the specific frame of reference.
This is the operational meaning of the term hypothesis.
Hypothesis is the composition of some variables which have some specific
position or role of the variables i.e. to be verified empirically
 DEFINITIONS OF HYPOTHESI
• Hypothesis A tentative supposition or provisional guess “James E. Greighton
• A Lungberg thinks “A hypothesis is a tentative generalization the validity of which remains to
be tested.
• According to John W. Best, “It is a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated
and provisionally adopted to explain observed facts or conditions
• Hypothesis: Guides the Thinking Process. According to A.D. Carmichael, “Science
employs hypothesis in guiding the thinking process.
• Hypothesis A proposition is to be put to test to determine its validity: Goode and
Han, “A hypothesis states what we are looking for. A hypothesis looks forward
• Hypothesis An expectation about events based on generalization: Bruce W.
Tuckman
• Hypothesis A tentative statement of the relationship between two or more
variables
• Hypothesis A statement temporarily accepted as true : Barr and Scates , “
ASSUMPTION, POSTULATE AND HYPOTHESIS

a. ASSUMPTION :Assumption means taking things for granted so that the

situation is simplified for logical procedure. Assumption means restrictive
conditions before the argument can become valid . Not very ground of
activities as postulates
b. POSTULATE: Postulates are the working beliefs of most scientific activity.
The mathematician begins by postulating a system of numbers which range
from 0 to 9 and can permute and combine only thereafter
c. HYPOTHESISA : hypothesis is different from both of these
It is the presumptive statement of a proposition which the investigator seeks to
prove. It is a condensed generalization.
This generalization requires a knowledge of principles of things or essential
characteristics which pertain to entire class of phenomena .
NATURE OF HYPOTHESIS
The following are the main features of a hypothesis:
• It is conceptual in nature. Some kind of conceptual elements in the framework
are involved in a hypothesis.
• It is a verbal statement in a declarative form. It is a verbal expression of ideas
and concepts, it is not merely idea but in the verbal form, the idea is ready
enough for empirical verification.
• It has the empirical referent. A hypothesis contains some empirical referent. It
indicates the tentative relationship between two or more variables.
• It has a forward or future reference. A hypothesis is future oriented. It relates to
the future verification not the past facts and informations.
• It is the pivot of a scientific research. All the research activities are designed for
its verification.
FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESIS
• It is a temporary solution of a problem concerning with some truth
which enables an investigator to start his research work.
• It offers a basis in establishing the specifics what to study for and may
provide possible solutions to the problem.
• Each hypothesis may lead to formulate another hypothesis.
• A preliminary hypothesis may take the shape of final hypothesis.
• Each hypothesis provides the investigator with definite statement
which may be objectively tested and accepted or rejected and leads for
interpreting results and drawing conclusions that is related to original
purpose
IMPORTANCE OF A HYPOTHESIS
• Hypothesis as the Investigator’s “Eyes”: Carter V. Good thinks that by
guiding the investigator in further investigation it serves as the
investigator’s “Eye
• It Focuses Research: serves as link between theory and investigation
• It Places Clear and Specific Goals: A well thought out set of hypothesis
is that they place clear and specific
• It Links Together: “It serves the important function of linking together
related facts and information
• As a Sort of Guiding Light: A hypothesis serves as a powerful beacon
that lights the way for the research work
• It Prevents Blind Research
 D.B. Van Dalen advocates the Importance of Hypothesis in the
following ways
• Hypotheses are indispensable research instrument, for they build a bridge
between the problem and the location of empirical evidence that may solve
the problem
• A hypothesis provides the map that guides and expedites the exploration of
the phenomena under consideration.
• Using hypothesis determines the relevancy of facts
• A hypothesis provides the framework for drawing conclusions.
• These hypotheses simulate the investigator for further research studies
• The hypothesis provides the investigator with the most efficient instrument
for exploring and explaining the unknown facts
 2.2.1. Types of Hypothesis
a working hypothesis or a tentative hypothesis is described as the best guess
or statement derivable from known or available evidence
There are four kinds of hypotheses:
1. Question form of Hypotheses. Some writers assert that a hypothesis may
be stated as a question, however, there is no general consensus on this view
In fact, it fails to fit most definitions of hypothesis. It is included here for two
reasons: the first of which is simply that it frequently appears in the lists. The
second reason is not so much that question may or may not qualify as a
hypothesis.
There are cases of simple investigation and search which can be adequately
implemented by raising a question, rather than dichotomize hypothesis forms
into acceptable/ reject able categories.
e.g. Is there a significant interaction effect of schedule of reinforcement and
 2. Declarative Statement:
• A hypothesis may be developed as a declarative which provide an
anticipated relationship or difference between variables
For example: H : There is significant interaction effect of schedule of
reinforcement and extroversion on learning outcomes
3. Directional Hypothesis: A hypothesis may be directional which
connotes an expected direction in the relationship or difference
between variables.
For example : H : Extrovert learns better through intermittent schedule
of reinforcement whereas introvert learns through continuous schedule
of reinforcement
This kind of hypothesis is less safe than the others because it reveals
two possible conditions.
 4. Non-Directional Hypothesis
• A hypothesis may be stated in the null form which is an assertion that
no relationship or no difference exists between or among the
variables.
• This form null hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis which is testable
within the framework of probability theory
• The following are the examples of null form of hypothesis
• H0 : There is no significant interaction effect of schedule of
reinforcement and extroversion on learning outcomes.
• H0 : There is no significant relationship between intelligence and
achievement of students
• A null hypothesis accepted is tentatively to stating that on the basis of
evidence tested it could be that if there is no difference.
• If the null hypothesis is rejected, there is a difference but we do not
know the alternative or the differences.
• In this form of hypothesis, researcher has not to anticipate or give the
rationale for the declaration or directional form.
• it does not make researcher biased or prejudiced.
• He can be objective about the expected outcomes of the research or
findings.
• It is a statistical hypothesis which is self explanatory-null hypothesis
means zero hypothesis.
• A statistical hypothesis must be testable within the framework of
probability theory. The theory requires one or the other of two
hypotheses forms: the ‘null’ form and the ‘delta’ form
Two Types of Errors

• Type I error (a error) : When an alternative hypothesis H1 may be

accepted and H0 is rejected. It hows that obtained difference exists
and not due chance or sampling errors.
• Type II error (b error) : When null hypothesis H1 is accepted and
alternative hypothesis H1 is rejected. It indicates that obtained
difference is due to chance or sampling error
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS
• A good hypothesis is in agreement with the observed facts.
• A good hypothesis does not conflict with any law of nature which is known to be true
• A good hypothesis is stated in the simplest possible term.
• A good hypothesis permits of the application of deductive reasoning.
• A good hypothesis shows very clear verbalization
• A good hypothesis ensures that the methods of verification are under control of the
investigator.
• A good hypothesis guarantees that available tools and techniques will be effectively
used for the purpose of verification.
• A good hypothesis ensures that the sample is readily approachable.
• A good hypothesis indicates clearly the role of different variables
• A good hypothesis maintains a very apparent distinction with what is called theory
law, facts, assumption and postulate
THANK YOUR FOR ATTENTION