Computers

Internal and
External Memory

1
Characteristics of Computer
Memory

Location
Capacity
Unit of transfer
Access Method
Performance
Physical Type
Organization
2
UNIVAC Console and CPU

3
Memory Hierarchy
COST SPEED

REGISTERS

CACHE

MAIN MEMORY

MAGNETIC DISK | DISK CACHE

MAGNETIC TAPE | OPTICAL DISK

5
Capacity Units
 Bit b
 Byte B = 8 b
 Kilobyte  KB = 1,000 B
 Megabyte  MB = 1,000,000 B
 Gigabyte  GB = 1,000,000,000 B
 Terabyte  TB = 1,000,000,000,000
B

6
Memory Access Method

Sequential - tape
Direct - floppy or hard disk
Random - internal memory
 Dynamic (DRAM)
simple, small, must be refreshed
 Static (SRAM)
no refresh needed
Associative - some cache
7
Random Access Memory

Chips and chip technology

8
Flip Flop Circuit Diagram

9
Memory Cells

CONTROL
read or write

DATA IN / SENSE
SELECT
input or output
select cell 1
0/1

10
Write to Memory
Read Enable
Write Enable
Row Address ARRAY
Col Address
A0
ROW DATA
. D1
ADDRESS INPUT
. MUX .
BUFFER BUFFER
. .
A10 COL DATA D4
ADDRESS OUTPUT
BUFFER REFRESH BUFFER

11
Pin Assignments
 A0 … A10: address location (multiplexed)
 D1 … D4: data in or out
 Vcc: power supply
 Vss: ground
 RAS: row address select
 CAS: column address select
 WE: write enable
 OS: output enable
12
Cache Operation

ALU CNTL
.....
CACHE
BUS
MAIN MEMORY

13
14
Cache

CPU

Word

CACHE Main Memory

Block

15
Cache
Slot Tag Block
Number
0
1
2
3

16
Random Access

Direct Access Storage Device (DASD)

or disk drives
 Optical
 Magnetic

17
Optical Disks (CD’s)

18
How CD’s work

19
Cylinder/Track/Block

Track Block (Sector)

Cylinder

20
Disk
Organization

21
DASD Structure
Read-Write Heads

22
Data Storage

FAT (File Access Tables), Directories

and Catalogs
Update and Delete
Fragmentation and reorganization
Blocks, Headers and Interblock Gaps

23
DASD Access (PC)

MAIN MEMORY

CPU
BUFFER

CACHE

DASD

CONTROLLER

24
25
DASD Access (Mainframe)

MAIN MEMORY

CPU
BUFFER

CHANNEL
DASD

CONTROLLER

27
Data Structure
BLOCK

HEADER DATA CRC

• Header written when disk is formatted

• Data copied into block
• Cyclical Redundancy Check calculated

28
Controller Operation
(DASD retrieval)
CPU passes parameters to registers in
the controller
The controller transfers data into the
card buffer
The controller checks the CRC to
assure the data was copied correctly
The controller (or CPU) transfers
buffered data to memory one word at
a time
29
Time Units
 Millisecond  ms = 1/1000 s
 Microsecon  µs = 1/1,000,000 s
d  ns = 1/1,000,000,000 s
 Nanosecond  ps = 1/1,000,000,000,000
 Picosecond s

32
Representative Times

Network speed = megabits per

second
Disk transfer = megabytes per
second
Disk access = milliseconds
Memory access = nanoseconds
Machine cycle =
microseconds/nanoseconds
33
Error Correction and
Checking
Block
Check Body Header

Add bits to a block to use for error

discovery
 Detection only
 Detection and retransmission
 Detection and recovery

34
Error Detection Only
(Asynchronous Transmission)

* Parity Bit
*
*
*
* 7 Data Bits
*
* 27 = 128 distinct characters
*

35
Error Detection &Correction
(Hamming Code: 4 bit word)

*
* 3 Error Checking Bits
*
*
* 4 Data Bits
*
*

36
Error Detection &Correction
(Hamming Code: 4 bit word)

DATA

* 1
*
*
1
1 1 0
1
1
0
37
Error Detection

PARITY (even)

1 1 1
0
0
0
1
1 1 0
1
1
0 0
38
Error Correction (4 bit word)

PARITY (even)

1 1 1
0
0
0
1
0 0 0
1
1
0 0
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Error Correction & Detection
Error detection takes fewer bits than
error correction
Longer packets take a smaller
percent for correction but have more
types of errors
Hamming’s scheme detects all errors
at a high overhead cost; others may
correct only single bit or double bit
errors with shorter check fields
40
CRC Error Checking

The transmitted messages are

divided into predetermined blocks
The blocks are divided by a fixed
divisor
The remainder is appended to the
message

41
IBM 1107 with tape drives

42
Memory

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