time-domain specifications

Assume for unity step input

(i) Delay time, td -It is the time required to reach 50% of output.
(ii) Rise time, tr-The time required by the system response to reach from 10% to 90% of the final
value for over-damped case, from 0% to 100% of the final value for under-damped case and
from 5% to 95% of the critically value for over-damped case.

(iii) Peak time, tp-The time required by the system response to reach the first maximum value
(iv) Peak overshoot, Mp- It is the time required to reach 50% of output.

(v) Settling timeIt is the time taken by the system response to settle down and stay with in 2%
Or 5% its final value.
For ± 2% error band,
EXAMPLES
• Consider the system shown in Figure 1. To improve the performance of
the system a feedback is added to this system, which results in Figure 2.
Determine the value of K so that the damping ratio of the new system is
0.4. Compare the overshoot, rise time, peak time and settling time and
the nominal value of the systems shown in Figures 1 and 2.

Figure 1. figure 2.
Types of Controllers
(i) P-controller
(ii) PI-controller
(iii) PD-controller
(iv) PID-controller
 P-controller
• Proportional Control: the actuating signal for the control action in a
control system is proportional to the error signal

• The error signal being the difference between the reference input
signal and the feedback signal obtained from input.

• Error or actuating signal = (Input signal) – (Feedback signal).=R(S)-B(S)

Advantages:
• Simple
• Easiest of the continuous controllers tune
• Provides good stability, rapid response and
• relatively stable.
Disadvantages:
• Only control results in offset – Never reaches SP
• Action is instantaneous – As soon as error is produced, control action is
taken.
• Used to stabilize unstable output
• Integral Control: For integral control action the actuating signal
consists of proportional error signal added with integral of the error
signal. Therefore, the actuating signal for integral control action is
given by

• The advantage of PI Controller is there will be no remain control error

after setting point change
• The disadvantage of PI has a tendency for oscillation
• Integral Action Control
• Also called Reset Action Control
• Continuous control mode
• Typical behavior/characteristic:
- The controller output is proportional to the integral of the error with
respect to time
- The value of the controller output is changed at a rate proportional to
the error “e”
• Used to removed offset
• As long as error exist, integral action will work to eliminate the error
• Derivative Control: The actuating signal consists of proportional error
signal added with derivative of the error signal.

• The value of R1 is selected so that the circuit will be stable for high
frequencies by setting where f is the frequency in Hz.
• Derivative Control
• Also called Rate Control Action
• Continuous control mode
• Typical behavior/characteristic:
- The controller output is proportional to the rate of the error (time
derivative)
• Faster/quick response compared to P
• Can cause the damage to the final value because of too fast rate of
change of the error
• Can amplify the noise in the system
• Cannot compensating the system error: e = w-x=0
• The derivative mode is never used alone because it cannot provide a
controller output when the error is zero.
• Implementation of this mode requires a circuit which has a response
given by
Proportional- Integral Control (PI
Mode)
PI control is a form of feedback control. It provides a faster response time than I-only
control due to the addition of the proportional action. PI control stops the system from
fluctuating, and it is also able to return the system to its set point. Although the
response time for PI-control is faster than I-only control, it is still up to 50% slower than
P-only control.

This controller can:

• eliminate an offset due to integral action
• the system response is slow due to lag introduced = -90o
• better dynamic response than integral alone
• I action repeats P action in Ti seconds
• the slope depends on Ti
PI-controller output for step input.
Proportional-Derivative Control (PD
Mode)
PD-control is combination of feedforward and feedback control, because it
operates on both the current process conditions and predicted process
conditions. In PD-control, the control output is a linear combination of the error
signal and its derivative. PD-control contains the proportional control’s damping
of the fluctuation and the derivative control’s prediction of process error.
This controller can:
• experience the offset but less than proportional only
• the system response is faster due to lead introduced = -90o
• better dynamic response than integral alone
• I action repeats P action in Ti seconds
• the slope depends on Ti
 PID Controller
 A PID controller is an instrument used in industrial control applications to
regulate temperature, flow, pressure, speed and other process variables.
 PID (proportional integral derivative) controllers use a control loop
feedback mechanism to control process variables and are the most
accurate and stable controller.
 PID Controller by calculating and controlling three parameters – the
proportional, integral and derivative of how much a process variable
deviates from the desired set point value – we can achieve different
control actions for specific work.
 PID controllers are considered to be the best controller in the control
system family. For PID control the actuating signal consists of proportional
error signal added with derivative and integral of the error signal.
Therefore, the actuating signal for PID control is:
• The derivative term D is responsible for noise measurement while the
integral term is meant for reaching the targeted value of the system. In
early days PID controller was used as a mechanical device. These were
pneumatic controllers as they were compressed by air. Mechanical
controllers include spring, lever or mass. Many complex electronic
systems are provided with a PID control loop.
• All these three parameters have an effect on the closed loop control
system. It affects rise time, settling time and overshoot and also the
steady state error.
• The error signal being the difference between the reference input
signal and the feedback signal obtained from input.
• Proportional Control: Here actuating signal for the control action in a
control system is proportional to the error signal
• Derivative Control: The actuating signal consists of proportional error
signal added with derivative of the error signal.

• Integral Control: For integral control action the actuating signal

consists of proportional error signal added with integral of the error
signal. Therefore, the actuating signal for integral control action is
given by
DISADVANTAGE OF PID
• A PID controller has some limitations also apart from being one of the
best controllers in control action system. PID control is applicable to
many control actions but it does not perform well in case of optimal
control. Main disadvantage is the feedback path. PID is not provided
with any model of the process. Other drawbacks are that PID is linear
system and derivative part is noise sensitive. Small amount of noise
can cause great change in the output.
Designing a PID Controller
1.Obtain an open-loop response and determine what needs to be
improved.
2.Add a proportional control to improve the rise time.
3.Add a derivative control to reduce the overshoot.
4.Add an integral control to reduce the steady-state error.
5.Adjust each of the gains Kp ,Ki , and Kd until you obtain a desired
overall response.
Summary

• Remark: Each mode has its advantages and drawbacks individually

• P mode Advantage: Fast response action
Drawback: Produces steady state error (offset)
• I mode Advantage: Steady state error is null
Drawback: Increases the response time
• D Mode Advantage: increases the damping of the system
Drawback: Amplifies the noise which can cause problems including instability
• Therefore, the pure controller mode (P or I or D) is seldom used in process
control because of the advantage of composite modes in providing good
control.
ASSIGNMENT 1
• A proportional controller has the scale 0-10 volts corresponds to a 0-
100% output. If R2 = 10 KΩ,and full scale error is 10 volt, find the
value of V0 and R1 to support a 20% proportional band about a 50%
zero-error controller output.
• Suppose that V(0)=0 for an integral controller. It is required that the
controller output should saturate 15 seconds after a constant 5%
error is applied. The input range is 0-5 volts and the output range is 0-
10 volts. Calculate the integration gain and the suitable values of R
and C. Assume C=50μF