INTRODUCTION

• Instrumentation is a technology of measurement which

serves sciences, engineering, medicine and etc.

• Measurement is the process of determining the amount,

degree or capacity by comparison with the accepted
standards of the system units being used.

• Instrument is a device for determining the value or

magnitude of a quantity or variable.

• Electronic instrument is based on electrical or electronic

principles for its measurement functions.

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FUNCTION AND ADVANTAGES
• The 3 basic functions of instrumentation :-
– Indicating – visualize the process/operation
– Recording – observe and save the measurement reading
– Controlling – to control measurement and process

• Advantages of electronic measurement

– Results high sensitivity rating – the use of amplifier
– Increase the input impedance – thus lower loading effects
– Ability to monitor remote signal

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 Typical Measurement System Architecture
Noise and Interference

Proce
Proce Sensor
Signal
ss or Amp Conditioner
ss Transducer
or
or
Test
Test
ADC
Converter
OUR TOPIC IS HERE
Proces
s
PC
Controller comp
… and control and
over the process or experiment data
storage
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 Examples of Electronic Sensor applications

Uses infrared optical sensor

New Solar Power Faucet by Sloan Valve
•0.5 gpm aerator regulates water flow
•Electronic sensor automatically turns water
on/off
•Integral temperature control

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 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

• Performance Characteristics - characteristics that show the

performance of an instrument.
– Eg: accuracy, precision, resolution, sensitivity.
• Allows users to select the most suitable instrument for a
specific measuring jobs.
• Two basic characteristics :
– Static – measuring a constant process condition.
– Dynamic - measuring a varying process condition.

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 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

• Accuracy – the degree of exactness (closeness) of

measurement compared to the expected (desired) value.
• Resolution – the smallest change in a measurement variable to
which an instrument will respond.
• Precision – a measure of consistency or repeatability of
measurement, i.e successive reading do not differ.
• Sensitivity – ratio of change in the output (response) of
instrument to a change of input or measured variable.
• Expected value – the design value or the most probable value
that expect to obtain.
• Error – the deviation of the true value from the desired value.

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 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT

• Basic elements of an electronics instrument

Signal Indicatin
Transduce Modifie g Device
r r
1) Transducer
- convert a non electrical signal into an electrical signal
- e.g: a pressure sensor detect pressure and convert it to electricity
for display at a remote gauge.
2) Signal modifier
- convert input signal into a suitable signal for the indicating
device
3) Indicating device
- indicates the value of quantity being measure

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 INSTRUMENT APPLICATION
GUIDE
• Selection, care and use of the instrument :-
 Before using an instrument, students should be thoroughly
familiar with its operation ** read the manual carefully
 Select an instrument to provide the degree of accuracy
required (accuracy + resolution + cost)
 Before used any selected instrument, do the inspection for
any physical problem
 Before connecting the instrument to the circuit, make
sure the ‘function switch’ and the ‘range selector switch’
has been set-up at the proper function or range

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SENSORS & TRANSDUCERS
 Sensor and transducer
• ‘Sensor' is `a device that detects a change in a physical stimulus and
turns it into a signal which can be measured or recorded.
E.g. : Thermistor

• ‘Transducer' is 'a device that transfers power from one system to

another in the same or in the different form'.
E.g. Thermistor with it associate circuit convert heat to electricity.

As a comparison……

‘Sensor' for the sensing element itself and 'transducer' for the
sensing element plus any associated circuitry. All transducers would
thus contain a sensor and most (not all) sensors would also be
transducers.

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Sensing process
 Definition of a transducer

Transducer is any device that converts energy in one form

to another energy. The majority either convert electrical
energy to mechanical displacement or convert some
non-electrical physical quantity, such as temperature,
sound or light to an electrical signal.

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 Functions of transducer
1. To sense the presence, magnitude, change in, and frequency
of some measurand.

2. To provide an electrical output that, when appropriately

processed and applied to readout device, gives accurate
quantitative data about the measurand

Measurand
Transducer Electrical
output

Excitation

Measurand – refers to the quantity, property or condition

which the transducer translates to an
electrical signal. 13
 Classification of
transducers
Transducer can be classified according to their application,
based primarily on the physical quantity, property, or
condition that is measured.
The transducer can be categories into:
A) Passive transducer:
- requires an external power
- output is a measure of some variation, such resistance and
capacitance. E.g. : condenser microphone

B) Self generating transducer:

- not require an external power, and they produce analog
voltage or current when stimulated by some physical form of
energy. E.g. : Thermocouple
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 Selecting a transducers
1. Operating range
2. Sensitivity
3. Frequency response and resonant frequency
4. Environmental compatibility -
5. Minimum sensitivity measurand.
6. Accuracy
7. Usage and ruggedness
8. Electrical parameter

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 Transducers to be covered
• Temperature transducers
• Resistive Position
Transducer
• Capacitive Transducer
• Inductive Transducer
• Strain Gauge
• LVDT
• Photoelectric
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 Temperature Transducers

Temperature transducers can be divided

into four main categories:

1. Resistance Temperature Detectors

(RTD)
2. Thermocouples
3. Thermistor
4. Ultrasonic transducers

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1) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Detectors of wire resistance temperature common employ platinum,
nickel or resistance wire elements, whose resistance variation with
temperature has high intrinsic accuracy. They are available in many
configurations and size and as shielded or open units for both
immersion and surface applications.
The relationship between temperature and resistance of conductors can
be calculated from the equation:

R  R0 (1  T )
where
R = the resistance of the conductor at temperature t ( 0C)
R0 = the resistance at the reference temperature, usually
200C
α = the temperature coefficient of resistance
ΔT = the difference between the operating and the
reference temperature
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 2) Thermocouple

It consists of two wires of different metals are joined together

at one end, a temperature difference between this end and the
other end of wires produces a voltage between the wires. The
magnitude of this voltage depends on the materials used for the
wires and the amount of temperature difference between the
joined ends and the other ends.

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 Cont’d
The emf of the thermocouple :
E = c(T1 – T2) + k(T12 – T22)

Where
c and k = constant of the thermocouple
materials
T1 = The temperature of the “hot”
junction
T2 = The temperature of the “cold” or
“reference” junction

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 3) Thermistor

A thermistor is a semiconductor made by sintering

mixtures of metallic oxide, such as oxides of manganese,
nickel, cobalt, copper and uranium.
Termistors have negative temperature coefficient (NTC).
That is, their resistance decreases as their temperature
rises.

Types of thermistor Resistance

Disc 1 to 1MΩ
Washer 1 to 50kΩ
Rod high resistance

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This figure shows
resistance versus
temperature for a
family thermistor.
The resistance value
marked at the bottom
end of each curve is a
value at 250C

Note!
The resistance
decreases as their
temperature rises-NTC

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 Advantages of thermistor
• Small size and low cost

• Fast response over narrow temperature range

• Good sensitivity in Negative Temperature Coefficient

(NTC) region

• Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence

of resistance on absolute temperature.

• Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered due

to large resistance

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 Limitations of thermistor

• Non linearity in resistance vs temperature

characteristics
• Unsuitable for wide temperature range
• Very low excitation current to avoids self heating
• Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc due to high
resistance

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 Resistive Position Transducer

The principle of the resistance transducer is that the

physical variable under measurement causes a resistance
change in the sensing element.
A common requirement in industrial measurement and
control work is to be able to sense the position of an
object or distance it has moved.
L Potentiometer
. R 
A

R: resistance
change
: density
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L: Length
Cont’d

FIG 1 FIG 1
(a) (b)
Figure shows the construction of a displacement transducer
uses a resistance element with a sliding contact or wiper
linked to the object being monitored.

The resistance between the slider and one end of the

resistance element depends on the position of the object. The
output voltage depends on the wiper position and therefore is
a function of the shaft position
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 der Fig 1 (b), if the circuit is unloaded, the output voltage V0 is a certa
on of VT, depending on the position of the wiper:
V0 R2

VT R1  R2

equation shows that the output voltage is directly proportional to

position of the wiper, if the resistance of the transducer is distributed
ormly along the length of travel of the wiper
EXAMPLE 1
A displacement transducer with a shaft stroke of 4
in. is used in the
circuit of figure 1 (b). R1 +R2 is 1000 Ω and VT = 4
V.
The wiper is 1.5 in from B. Find V0? 27
Capacitive Transducer
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given
by

kA 0
C ( Farads )
d

where
k = dielectric constant
A = the area of the plate, in m2
εo = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
d = the plate placing in m

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 Cont’d
Forms of Capacitance Transducers

Rectilinear
Rotary plate Capacitance
capacitor Transducer Thin diaphragm

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 Cont’d

Rotary plate capacitor:

The capacitance of this unit

proportional to the amount of the fixed
plate that is covered, that shaded by
moving plate. This type of transducer
will give sign proportional to
curvilinear displacement or angular
velocity.
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 Cont’d

Rectilinear capacitance
transducer:

It consists of a fixed
cylinder and a moving
cylinder. These pieces
are configured so the
moving piece fits inside
the fixed piece but
insulated from it.

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 Cont’d
Thin diaphragm:
A transducer that varies
the spacing between
surfaces. The dielectric is
either air or vacuum.
Often used as Capacitance
microphones.

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 Cont’d
Advantages:
1. Has excellent frequency response
2. Can measure both static and dynamic phenomena.

Disadvantages:
1. Sensitivity to temperature variations
2. the possibility of erratic or distortion signals owing to
long lead length

Applications:
1. As frequency modulator in RF oscillator
2. In capacitance microphone
3. Use the capacitance transducer in an ac bridge circuit

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 Inductive Transducer
Inductive transducers may be either of the self generating or
passive type. The self generating type utilises the basic
electrical generator principle, i.e, a motion between a
conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the
conductor (generator action). This relative motion between
the field and the conductor is supplied by changes in the
measurand.

An inductive electromechanical transducer is a device that

converts physical motion (position change) into a change in
inductance. Transducers of variable inductance type work
upon one of the following principles:
1. Variation of self inductance
• Variation of mutual inductance
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 Cont..

Inductive transducers are mainly used for the measurement of

displacement. The displacement to be measured is
arranged to cause variation in any of three variables:

1. Number of turns
2. Geometric configuration
3. Permeability of the magnetic material or magnetic circuits

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 Strain Gauge
The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that
uses electric resistance variation in wires to sense the strain
produced by a force on wires. It is a very versatile detector
and transducer for measuring weight, pressure, mechanical
force, or displacement.
The construction of a bonded strain
gauge (see figure) shows a fine wire
element looped back and forth on a
mounting plate, which is usually
cemented to the member
undergoing stress. A tensile stress
tends to elongate the wire and
thereby increase its length and
decrease its cross-sectional area.
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 The combined effect is an increase in resistance:

Where, L
R
A
ρ: the specific resistance of the conductor material in ohm
meters
L : length of conductor (meters)
A : area of conductor (m2)

As consequence of strain, 2 physical qualities are particular

interest:

1) The change in gauge resistance

2) The change in length

The relationship between these two variables called gauge

factor, 37
 R / R
K
L / L
Where

K= the gauge factor

R=the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)
∆R= the change in initial resistance in ohms
L= the initial length in meters (without strain)
∆L=the change in initial length in meters

∆L/L same unit with 

G,Rtherefore
/R
K
G
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From Hooke theory, stress, S, is defined as internal
force/area.

F
S
A

Where
S= the stress in kilograms per square meter
F= the force in kilograms
A= area in square meters

Then the modulus of elasticity of material E or called

Young’s modulus (Hooke’s Law) is written as:
S Where,
E E= Young modules in kg per square meter
G S= the stress in kilograms per square meter
G= the strain (no units)
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Metallic strain gauge – formed from thin
resistance wire or etched from thin sheets of metal
foil.

Wire gauge (small) – to minimum leakage – for

high T applications

Semiconductor strain gauge – high output

transducers as load cells

Strain gauge is generally used as one arm of

bridge
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LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER (LVDT)

It consists basically of a primary winding and

two secondary windings, wound over a
hollow tube and positioned so the primary
winding is between two secondaries. In figure
shows the construction of the LVDT.

An iron core slides within the tube and therefore affects the magnet
coupling between the primary and the two secondaries. When the core is
in the centre, voltage induced in the two secondaries is equal. When the
core is moved in one direction from centre, the voltage induced in one
winding is increased and that in the other is decreased. Movement in the
opposite direction reverses this effect
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Cont..

42
Cont..

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• What’s Photoelectric Effect?
-is the emission of electrons from matter upon the
absorption of electromagnetic radiation, such as
ultraviolet radiation or x-rays.-refers to the emission,
or ejection, of electrons from the surface of,
generally, a metal in response to incident light.

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 Photoelectric Transducer
Can be categorized as: photoemissive, photoconductive, or photovoltaic.

No. Types Characteristics

1. Photoemmisive radiation falling into a cathode causes

electrons to be emitted from cathode
surface.

2. Photoconductive the resistance of a material is change

when it’s illuminated.

3. Photovoltaic Generate an output voltage

proportional to radiation intensity

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• Examples of Photoelectric Transducer

• (i) The Photomultiplier Tube

• (ii) Photoconductive Cells OR Photocells
the electrical resistance of the materials
varies with the amount of light striking.
• (iii) The Photovoltaic Cell or solar cell
- produce an electrical current when
connected to the load.

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THE END

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