Data Transmission on Layer 1

Physical Layer

3.1
 Data Transmission

On Physical Layer
Chapter 3: Data and Signals

Chapter 4: Digital Transmission

Chapter 5: Analog Transmission

Chapter 7:Transmission Media

3.2
 Chapter 3

Data and Signals

3.3
 3-1 ANALOG AND DIGITAL DATA

Data that we need to transmit on the network can be Analog or Digital.

Analog data refers to information that is continuously changing like output of

mic or camera etc.

Digital data refers to data that has discrete values like 1 and 0.

Topics discussed in this section:

 Analog and Digital Data
 Analog and Digital Signals
3.4  Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals
 Convert Data into Signals
To transmit data on a physical medium like wire or

Fiber optic, Data must be transformed into

Electromagnetic signals:

Pulses of electricity

Pulses of light

3.5
 Analog and Digital Signals

V V

o o

lt lt

a a

g g

e e

3.6
 TRANSMISSION OF ANALOG DATA

Analog data : Data that is continuous like:

Clock Time, Temperature, Humidity, Human voice, Video

To transmit this on the network, it must be converted into electrical signals. The Signals can then

be sent as:
1. Analog signal
2. Converted to Digital and then sent as Digital Signal

3.7
 TRANSMISSION OF DIGITAL DATA

Digital data:

Digital Data has unique values like 1 or 0

or True and False

Data in Computer memory is 1s and 0s.

A Digital Clock has discrete values.

For transmission of Digital data, we can:

1. Convert digital data into digital signal and send on wire.
2. Convert digital data into light pulses and send that on fiber optic

3. Convert digital data into pulses of radio frequencies and transmit in the air or

send on land line.

-Our computer data transmitted on wi-fi.

3.8
 HOW TO CONVERT DIGITAL DATA INTO DIGITAL SIGNALS

Digital data can be converted into digitals signals.

For example, to send 1s and 0s

1 can be sent as +5 Volt and 0 as 0 Volt

1 can be sent as +5 Volt and 0 as -5 Volt.

To increase the speed of transmission,

we can use two amplitude levels

say +3V, +1.5V, -1.5V and -3V

By using 4 levels, we can send 2 bits at one time.

+3V can represent 00

+1.5V can represent 01

3.9 -1.5V can represent 10

 Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other with four

signal levels

Send 1-bit per level

Send 2-bit per level

If a signal can have 8 level, 3 bits can be sent at one time. No of bits sent= log 28 =3 bits

If a signal has L level, no of bits/level= log2L bits

3.10
 Example 3.8

A digital signal has 16 levels. How many bits can be sent per level?

We calculate the number of bits from the formula

no of bits/level= log216 = 4 bits

Each signal level is represented by 4 bits.

3.11
 Bit Rate and Bit Interval

Bit Rate : number of bits per second bps

Bit Interval = 1 / Bit Rate Measured in Seconds

If 1000 bits being sent per second, Bit Rate =1000 bps
3.12
 A digital signal has a bit rate of 2000 bps. What is the duration of each bit (bit interval)

Solution

The bit interval is the inverse of the bit rate.

Bit Interval = 1/ 2000 sec = 0.0005 sec

= 0.0005 x 1000 = 0.5 msec

= 0.5 ms x1000 = 500sec

3.13
 Example

Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages per minute. What is the

required bit rate of the channel?

Solution
A page on average has 24 lines with 80 characters in each line.

For sending text, we use ASCII, one character is represented by 8 bits.

Total Characters of 100 pages = 24 x 80 x100

Total Bits = 24 x 80 x 100 x 8 = 1,536,000 bits

Required bit rate=1,536,000/60= 25,600 bps = 25.6 Kbps

3.14
 Bandwidth for a Digital Signals

When Digital Signals is transmitted on a wire, no other signal can be sent at that time as it

would interfere with other digital signal. Thus, only one digital signal can be transmitted on a

wire or Fiber Optic. This is called Baseband transmission.

Base band transmission occupies the entire wire thus Infinite Bandwidth. i.e., starting from

zero to infinite frequency

3.15
 Transmission of Digital Signals over Long

Distance
Digitals signals can be transmitted as Digital over a Short Distance (in LAN) Max

100 Meters.

Transmitting over distances like 1000 Meters the signals attenuates so much that

message becomes unreadable.

Techniques for sending digital signals over longer distance:

a. Can use repeaters or a switch

b. Convert into Analog signals and then transmit on wire, fiber optic or

wireless.

3.16
 Analog Signals

3.17
 Periodic Signals: Signal that repeat itself at regular intervals can be represented as a Sine

Wave

S(t)= A sin (2πft+Φ)

S(t) represents the amplitude of signal at time t

A: peak amplitude( Highest Value of Amplitude)

f: frequency

t: Time in Seconds
3.18
 A Graph drawn of Sine Values from

0—360 degrees

3.19
 Frequency
• Frequency is the rate of change with respect
to time or Number of Cycles Per Second
• Change in a short span of time means high
frequency.
• Change over a long span of time means low
frequency.

3.20
 If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero.

If a signal changes from 0 to say 10 volts in zero seconds, like Digital

Signal its frequency= 1/T= 1/0 = Infinite

3.21
 Frequency and Time Period

Frequency Unit Time Unit

Period
1 1 Hz 1 Sec 1 Sec
1000 1 Kilo Hertz KHz 10-3 Sec 1 Mili Sec
1000,000 1 Mega Hertz MHz 10-6 Sec 1 Micro Sec
1000,000,000 1 Giga Hertz GHz 10-9 Sec 1 Nano Sec
1000,000,000,000 1 Tera Hertz THz 10-12 Sec 1 Pico Sec

3.22
 Two signals of same frequency, but different amplitudes

3.23
 Frequency and Time Period

Frequency f: Number of Cycles / Second. Hertz or Hz

Period T: Time taken for one complete cycle

3.24
 Signals with the same amplitude but different frequencies

Frequency 12 Hz

Frequency 6 Hz

3.25
 Calculation of Time Period of Analog Signal

The amplitude of electricity 220 Volt we use at home is continuously changing. It repeats the

pattern exactly 50 times per second. Frequency is 50 Cycles /Sec 50 Hz

Time Period of this sine wave can be determined using Formula:

T = 1/f = 1/50 = .02 Sec = 20 msec

3.26
 Phase of a Sine Wave

 Phase is measured in degrees or radians

 There are π Radians in 180 Degrees
 π = 3.14159
 180° = π Radians, 90° = π/2 Radians
 Phase shift of 360 ° = shift of a complete period
 Phase shift of 180° = Shift of one-half period
 Phase shift of 90° = one quarter of period
(1/4) cycle.
3.27
Sine waves with phase shift of 0, 90 and 180 degrees

Phases starts at 0 with Zero amplitude. The amplitude

increasing

Starts at time Zero with a peak amplitude. The

amplitude is decreasing

starts at time Zero with a zero amplitude. The amplitude

is decreasing

3.28
 Example 3.3

A sine wave has phase shift of 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its phase in degrees and

radians?

Solution

We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6 cycle is

Phase shift of 60 Degrees or 1.046 Radians

3.29
 Sine Wave Equations

3.30
 Digital Data Transmission as
Analog Signals
 Now all data to be transmitted on our
networks is digital.
 A sine wave of 100 kHz can be modulated to
send digital data.
 For sending large data, we can send that on
two or more sine waves of different
frequencies.
 Multiple Sine Waves can travel at one time on
wire or fiber optic. Signals carrying data on
multiple sine waves is called COMPOSITE
3.31 signal.
 A Digital signal of Frequency f can be considered as composite

Signal. Combination of three frequencies, f, 3f and 5f

3.32
 Bandwidth of a Signal
 The bandwidth of a composite signal is
the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequencies contained in that
signal.

3.33
 Transmission TRANSMISSION
impairments in computer networks
IMPAIRMENT

refer to the degradation or distortion of transmitted

signals over a communication channel.

There are three main types of transmission

impairments:

1. Attenuation
2. Distortion
3.34
 ATTENUATION
Attenuation is the loss of signal strength in

networking cables or wireless connections. This

typically is measured in decibels (dB) or voltage.

It may cause signals to become distorted or

indiscernible. An example of this is Wi-Fi signal

3.35
strength getting noticeably weaker the further that
 DISTORTION

Distortion occurs when the shape of the

transmitted signal is altered due to factors such

as attenuation, interference, or noise

Distortion can cause errors in data transmission

and affect the reliability of the network.

3.36
 NOISE

Noise refer to any unwanted signals that

interfere with the transmission of data.

3.37
 Propagation time

Time required for a bit to travel from the source to the destination at Propagation

speed

Propagation time = Distance

Propagation speed

Propagation speed depends on the medium

3.38
 Propagation time

3.39
 Transmission time

The time required for transmission of a message .

It depends on:
 The size of the message
 Bandwidth of the channel

Transmission time = Message size

Bandwidth (bps)

3.40
 Example:

8
Light travels in free space at 3.0 x 10 m/s in free space.
8
In wires or fiber Optics, it is around 2.4 x 10 m/s

3.41
 Solution

3.42