S UBJECT : OPERATING

SUB SYSTEM CA-403

CODE : SYBBA(CA)
CLASS: SEM-IV
What is an Operating System?
⚫ A program that acts as an
intermediary between a user of
a computer and the computer
hardware.
⚫ Operating system goals:
⚫ Execute user programs and make
solving user problems easier.
⚫ Make the computer system
convenient to use.
⚫ Use the computer hardware in an
efficient manner.
Operating System
Concepts
Computer System Components
1.Hardware – provides basic computing
resources (CPU, memory, I/O devices).
2.Operating system – controls and coordinates
the use of the hardware among the various
application programs for the various users.
3.Applications programs – define the ways in
which the system resources are used to
solve the computing problems of the users
(compilers, database systems, video games,
business programs).
4.Users (people, machines, other computers).
Operating System
Concepts
 Abstract View of System
Components

Operating System
Concepts
Operating System Definitions
⚫ Resource allocator – manages and
allocates resources.
⚫ Control program – controls the
execution of user programs and
operations of I/O devices .
⚫ Kernel – the one program running at
all times (all else being application
programs).

Operating System
Concepts
 Mainframe Systems
⚫ Reduce setup time by batching
similar jobs
⚫ Automatic job sequencing –
automatically transfers control
from one job to another. First
rudimentary operating system.
⚫ Resident monitor
⚫ initial control in monitor
⚫ control transfers to job
⚫ when job completes control transfers
pack to monitor

Operating System
Concepts
 Memory Layout for a Simple Batch System

Operating System
Concepts
 Multiprogrammed Batch
Systems
Several jobs are kept in main memory at the same
time, and the CPU is multiplexed among them.

Operating System
Concepts
 OS Features Needed for Multiprogramming

⚫ I/O routine supplied by the system.

⚫ Memory management – the
system must allocate the memory
to several jobs.
⚫ CPU scheduling – the system must
choose among several jobs ready
to run.
⚫ Allocation of devices.

Operating System
Concepts
 Time-Sharing Systems–Interactive Computing

⚫ The CPU is multiplexed among several

jobs that are kept in memory and on
disk (the CPU is allocated to a job only
if the job is in memory).
⚫ A job swapped in and out of memory to
the disk.
⚫ On-line communication between the user
and the system is provided; when the
operating system finishes the execution
of one command, it seeks the next
“control statement” from the user’s
keyboard.
⚫ On-line system must be available for
users to access data and code.

Operating System
Concepts
 Desktop Systems
⚫ Personal computers – computer system
dedicated to a single user.
⚫ I/O devices – keyboards, mice, display
screens, small printers.
⚫ User convenience and responsiveness.
⚫ Can adopt technology developed for
larger operating system’ often
individuals have sole use of computer
and do not need advanced CPU
utilization of protection features.
⚫ May run several different types of
operating systems (Windows,
MacOS, UNIX, Linux)

Operating System
Concepts
Parallel Systems
⚫ Multiprocessor systems with more than
on CPU in close communication.
⚫ Tightly coupled system – processors share
memory and a clock; communication usually
takes place through the shared memory.
⚫ Advantages of parallel system:
⚫ Increased throughput
⚫ Economical
⚫ Increased reliability
⚫ graceful degradation
⚫ fail-soft systems

Operating System
Concepts
 Parallel Systems (Cont.)
⚫ Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)
⚫ Each processor runs and identical
copy of the operating system.
⚫ Many processes can run at once
without performance
deterioration.
⚫ Most modern operating systems
support SMP
⚫ Asymmetric multiprocessing
⚫ Each processor is assigned a specific
task; master processor schedules and
allocated work to slave processors.
⚫ More common in extremely large
systems

Operating System
Concepts
 Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

Operating System
Concepts
 Distributed Systems
⚫ Distribute the computation among
several physical processors.
⚫ Loosely coupled system – each processor
has its own local memory; processors
communicate with one another through
various communications lines, such as
high-speed buses or telephone lines.
⚫ Advantages of distributed systems.
⚫ Resources Sharing
⚫ Computation speed up – load sharing
⚫ Reliability
⚫ Communications

Operating System
Concepts
Computer-System Architecture

Operating System
Concepts
Computer-System Operation
⚫ I/O devices and the CPU can execute
concurrently.
⚫ Each device controller is in charge of a
particular device type.
⚫ Each device controller has a local buffer.
⚫ CPU moves data from/to main memory
to/from local buffers
⚫ I/O is from the device to local buffer of
controller.
⚫ Device controller informs CPU that it has
finished
Operating System its operation by causing an
Concepts
Common Functions of Interrupts
⚫ Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt
service routine generally, through the
interrupt vector, which contains the
addresses of all the service routines.
⚫ Interrupt architecture must save the
address of the interrupted instruction.
⚫ Incoming interrupts are disabled while
another interrupt is being processed to
prevent a lost interrupt.
⚫ A trap is a software-generated interrupt
caused either by an error or a user request.
Operating System
Concepts
 Interrupt Handling

⚫ The operating system preserves the state of

the CPU by storing registers and the
program counter.
⚫ Determines which type of interrupt has
occurred:
⚫ polling
⚫ vectored interrupt system
⚫ Separate segments of code determine
what action should be taken for each
type of interrupt
Operating System
Concepts
 Interrupt Time Line For a Single Process Doing Output

Operating System
Concepts
I/O Structure
⚫ After I/O starts, control returns to user
program only upon I/O completion.
⚫ Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next
interrupt
⚫ Wait loop (contention for memory access).
⚫ At most one I/O request is outstanding at a
time, no simultaneous I/O processing.
⚫ After I/O starts, control returns to user
program without waiting for I/O
completion.
⚫ System call – request to the operating
system to allow user to wait for I/O
completion.
⚫ Device-status table contains entry for each
I/O device indicating its type, address, and
state.
⚫ Operating system indexes into I/O device
table to
determine device status and to modify table
entry to include interrupt.

Operating System
Concepts
Two I/O Methods
Synchronous Asynchrono
us

Operating System
Concepts
 Device-Status
Table

Operating System
Concepts
Direct Memory Access Structure
⚫ Used for high-speed I/O devices able to
transmit information at close to
memory speeds.
⚫ Device controller transfers blocks of data
from buffer storage directly to main
memory without CPU intervention.
⚫ Only on interrupt is generated per block,
rather than the one interrupt per byte.

Operating System
Concepts
Storage Structure
⚫ Main memory – only large storage media that
the CPU can access directly.
⚫ Secondary storage – extension of main
memory that provides large nonvolatile
storage capacity.
⚫ Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass
platters covered with magnetic recording
material
⚫ Disk surface is logically divided into tracks,
which are subdivided into sectors.
⚫ The disk controller determines the logical
Operating System
Concepts interaction between the device and the
 Moving-Head Disk Mechanism

Operating System
Concepts
Storage Hierarchy
⚫ Storage systems organized in hierarchy.
⚫ Speed
⚫ Cost
⚫ Volatility
⚫ Caching – copying information into faster
storage system; main memory can be viewed
as a last cache for secondary storage.

Operating System
Concepts
 Storage-Device Hierarchy

Operating System
Concepts
Caching
⚫ Use of high-speed memory to hold recently-
accessed data.
⚫ Requires a cache management policy.
⚫ Caching introduces another level in storage
hierarchy. This requires data that is
simultaneously stored in more than one
level to be consistent.

Operating System
Concepts
 Migration of A From Disk to
Register

Operating System
Concepts
 Hardware Protection
⚫ Dual-Mode
Operation
⚫ I/O Protection
⚫ Memory
Protection
⚫ CPU Protection

Operating System
Concepts
 Process Concept
⚫ An operating system executes a
variety of programs:
⚫ Batch system – jobs
⚫ Time-shared systems – user
programs or tasks
⚫ Textbook uses the terms job and
process almost interchangeably.
⚫ Process – a program in execution;
process execution must progress in
sequential fashion.
⚫ A process includes:
⚫ program counter
⚫ stack
⚫ data section

Operating System
Concepts
 Process State
⚫ As a process executes, it changes state
⚫ new: The process is being created.
⚫ running: Instructions are being
executed.
⚫ waiting: The process is waiting for some
event to occur.
⚫ ready: The process is waiting to be
assigned to a process.
⚫ terminated: The process has
finished execution.

Operating System
Concepts
 Diagram of Process State

Operating System
Concepts
 Process Control Block (PCB)
Information associated with each
process.
⚫ Process state
⚫ Program counter
⚫ CPU registers
⚫ CPU scheduling information
⚫ Memory-management
information
⚫ Accounting information
⚫ I/O status information

Operating System
Concepts
 Process Control Block (PCB)

Operating System
Concepts
 CPU Switch From Process to Process

Operating System
Concepts
 Process Scheduling Queues
⚫ Job queue – set of all processes in the
system.
⚫ Ready queue – set of all processes
residing in main memory, ready and
waiting to execute.
⚫ Device queues – set of processes waiting
for an I/O device.
⚫ Process migration between the various
queues.

Operating System
Concepts
 Ready Queue And Various I/O Device Queues

Operating System
Concepts
 Representation of Process Scheduling

Operating System
Concepts
 Schedulers
⚫ Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler) –
selects which processes should be brought
into the ready queue.
⚫ Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) –
selects which process should be executed next
and allocates CPU.

Operating System
Concepts
 Addition of Medium Term Scheduling

Operating System
Concepts
 Schedulers (Cont.)
⚫ Short-term scheduler is invoked very
frequently (milliseconds)  (must be
fast).
⚫ Long-term scheduler is invoked very
infrequently (seconds, minutes)  (may
be slow).
⚫ The long-term scheduler controls the
degree of multiprogramming.
⚫ Processes can be described as either:
⚫ I/O-bound process – spends more time doing
I/O than computations, many short CPU
bursts.
⚫ CPU-bound process – spends more
Operating System
Concepts
 Context Switch
⚫ When CPU switches to another process,
the system must save the state of the
old process and load the saved state for
the new process.
⚫ Context-switch time is overhead; the
system does no useful work while
switching.
⚫ Time dependent on hardware support.

Operating System
Concepts
Process Creation
⚫ Parent process create children processes,
which, in turn create other processes,
forming a tree of processes.
⚫ Resource sharing
⚫ Parent and children share all resources.
⚫ Children share subset of parent’s
resources.
⚫ Parent and child share no resources.
⚫ Execution
⚫ Parent and children execute concurrently.
⚫ Parent waits until children terminate.
Operating System
Concepts
Process Creation (Cont.)
⚫ Address space
⚫ Child duplicate of parent.
⚫ Child has a program loaded into it.
⚫ UNIX examples
⚫ fork system call creates new process
⚫ exec system call used after a fork to replace
the process’ memory space with a new
program.

Operating System
Concepts
 Processes Tree on a UNIX System

Operating System
Concepts
Process Termination
⚫ Process executes last statement and asks the
operating system to decide it (exit).
⚫ Output data from child to parent (via wait).
⚫ Process’ resources are deallocated by operating
system.
⚫ Parent may terminate execution of children
processes (abort).
⚫ Child has exceeded allocated resources.
⚫ Task assigned to child is no longer required.
⚫ Parent is exiting.
⚫ Operating system does not allow child to continue if
its parent terminates.
⚫ Cascading termination.

Operating System
Concepts
Basic Concepts
⚫ Maximum CPU utilization
obtained with multiprogramming
⚫ CPU–I/O Burst Cycle – Process
execution consists of a
cycle of CPU execution and I/O
wait.
⚫ CPU burst distribution

Operating System
Concepts
 Alternating Sequence of CPU And I/O Bursts

Operating System
Concepts
 Histogram of CPU-burst Times

Operating System
Concepts
CPU Scheduler
⚫ Selects from among the processes in memory that
are ready to execute, and allocates the CPU to
one of them.
⚫ CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a
process:
1.Switches from running to waiting state.
2.Switches from running to ready state.
3.Switches from waiting to ready.
4.Terminates.
⚫ Scheduling under 1 and 4 is nonpreemptive.
⚫ All other scheduling is preemptive.
Operating System
Concepts
Dispatcher
⚫ Dispatcher module gives control of the
CPU to the process selected by the short-
term scheduler; this involves:
⚫ switching context
⚫ switching to user mode
⚫ jumping to the proper location in the user
program to restart that program
⚫ Dispatch latency – time it takes for the
dispatcher to stop one process and start
another running.
Operating System
Concepts
 Scheduling Criteria
⚫ CPU utilization – keep the CPU as
busy as possible
⚫ Throughput – # of processes that
complete their execution per time unit
⚫ Turnaround time – amount of time to
execute a particular process
⚫ Waiting time – amount of time a process
has been waiting in the ready queue
⚫ Response time – amount of time it
takes from when a request was
submitted until the first response is
produced, not output (for time-
sharing environment)

Operating System
Concepts
Optimization Criteria
⚫ Max CPU
utilization
⚫ Max throughput
⚫ Min turnaround
time
⚫ Min waiting time
⚫ Min response
time

Operating System
Concepts
 First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling

Process Burst
Time
P1 24
P2
⚫ Suppose that the processes 3
arrive in the order:
P1 , P2 , P3 P3 3
The Gantt Chart for the schedule is:
P1 P2 P3

⚫ Wa0iting time for P1 = 0; P2 3

0
= 2424; P3 = 2277
⚫ Average waiting time: (0 + 24 +
27)/3 = 17

Operating System
Concepts
FCFS Scheduling (Cont.)
Suppose that the processes arrive in
the order 2 3 1
t P2 orP3 P schedule
,P P1
chart the is:
0f 3 , P6 3
0

.
⚫ The Gant
⚫ Waiting time for P1 = 6; P2 = 0; P3 = 3
⚫ Average waiting time:(6 + 0 + 3)/3 = 3
⚫ Much better than previous case.
⚫ Convoy effect short process behind long
process
Operating System
Concepts
Shortest-Job-First (SJR) Scheduling
⚫ Associate with each process the length of its
next CPU burst. Use these lengths to schedule
the process with the shortest time.
⚫ Two schemes:
⚫ nonpreemptive – once CPU given to the process it
cannot be preempted until completes its CPU
burst.
⚫ preemptive – if a new process arrives with CPU
burst length less than remaining time of current
executing process, preempt. This scheme is
know as the
Shortest-Remaining-Time-First (SRTF).
⚫ SJF is optimal – gives minimum average waiting
time for a given set of processes.
Operating System
Concepts
Example of Non-Preemptive SJF
Process Arrival Time Burst
Time
P 0.
1
0 7
P 2. 4
2
0 14
⚫ SJF non-P P1 4.P3 P2 P4
( preemptive) 0
3
0 P 3 5.7 1 1
8 2 6
4
0

⚫ Average waiting time = (0 + 6 + 3

+ 7)/4 - 4
Operating System
Concepts
Example of Preemptive SJF
Process Arrival Time Burst
Time
P 0.
1 0 7
P 2. 4
2
0 14
⚫ SJF pre
P1 mptiv
P P2 )P3 4.
P2 P4 P1
( e e 0
3
0
P
2 4 5 5. 7 1 1
1 6
0
4

⚫ Average waiting time = (9 + 1 + 0

+2)/4 - 3
Operating System
Concepts
Determining Length of Next CPU
Burst
⚫ Can only estimate the length.
⚫ Can be done by using the length of
previous CPU burst1s., tun sianctguael
lxepng2.
ohnn1t oepredicted the
f nntthiCaPlUabvuersnext CPU
rtaging.
value for burst
3. , 0  1
4. Define :
n1  tn 
1n .

Operating System
Concepts