PHYSICAL SCIENCES

TYPES OF REACTIONS
GRADE 11
TOPIC:TYPES OF REACTIONS
ACIDS AND BASES
CURRICULUM SUPPORT SERVICE
 Lesson objectives
• Determine the common acids and bases together with
their formula.
• Define acids and bases in terms of Arrhenius and
Lowry Bronsted.
• Identify the conjugate acid-base pairs.
• Define ampholyte or amphiprotic substance.
• Discribe an acid-base indicators.
• Discribe redox reactions.
• Balance redox reactions.
 Some common acids and bases, and their
chemical formulae are shown in the table below:
ACIDS FORMULA BASES FORMULA
Hydrochloric acid HCl Ammonia NH3
Nitric acid HNO3 Sodium carbonate Na2CO3
(washing soda)
Sulphuric acid H2SO4 Sodium hydrogen NaHCO3
carbonate (caustic
soda)
Ethanoic acid (acetic CH3COOH Potassium hydroxide KOH
acid)
 Acid-base
• All the acids consist of hydrogen (H+) ion.
 Arrhenius definition of ACIDS and
BASES
• Arrhenius describe acids as a substance that produce
hydrogen (H3O+/ H+) ion in aqueous solution

• Example
HCl (aq) + H2O (l)  H3O+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)
Hydrochloric acid in water increases the concentration
of H3O+ ions and is therefore is an acid.
 Arrhenius definition of ACIDS and
BASES
• Arrhenius describe bases as a substance that
produce hydroxide (OH− ) ion in aqueous solution
• Example
NaOH (s) + H2O (l)  Na+ (aq) + OH− (aq)
Sodium hydroxide in water increases the concentration
of OH− ions and therefore is a base.
Lowry Bronsted definition of ACIDS and BASES

• The Bronsted-Lowry model defines acids and bases in

terms of their ability to donate or accept protons.
• Lowry Bronsted describe acid as a proton donor.
• Lowry Bronsted describe base as a proton acceptor.

• Example
HCl (aq) + NH3 (aq)  NH4+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)
Lowry Bronsted definition of ACIDS and
BASES
In order to decide which is substance is a proton donor
and which is a proton accepter, we need to look at what
happens to each reactant. The reaction can be broken
down as follows:
HCl (aq)  Cl− (aq) and
NH3 (aq)  NH4+ (aq)
From these reaction is clear that HCl is a proton donor
and is therefore an acid, and NH3 is proton acceptor
and is therefore a base.
 Strong acid-base
• Strong acid is a substance that ionise completely in
water to form high concentration of H3O+ ions.
• Examples: HCl, H2SO4 and HNO3
• Strong base is a substance that dissociate completely
in water to form high concentration of OH− ions.
• Examples: NaOH and KOH
 Weak acid-base
• Weak acid is a substance that ionise incompletely in
water to form low concentration of H3O+ ions.
• Examples: CH3COOH and (COOH)2
• Weak base is a substance that dissociate
incompletely in water to form low concentration of
OH− ions.
• Examples: Na2CO3,NH3,NaHCO3,CaCO3 and K2CO3
 Conjugate ACID-BASE pairs
In an acid–base reaction, there are two conjugate
acid–base pairs:
•an acid that donates H+ to form its conjugate base
conjugate acid–base pair 1
HA + B A− + BH+
conjugate acid–base pair 2
•a base that accepts H+ to form its conjugate acid
 Conjugate ACID-BASE pairs
In the reaction of HF and H2O, we can identify the conjugate
acid–base pairs as HF/F− along with H3O+/H2O.
 ACTIVITY 1
A. Write the conjugate base of the following:
1. HBr
2. H2S
3. H2CO3
B. Write the conjugate acid of the following:
1. NO2−
2. NH3
3. OH−
 SOLUTIONS
A. Write the conjugate base of the following:
1. HBr Br−
2. H2S HS−
3. H2CO3 HCO3−
B. Write the conjugate acid of the following:
1. NO2− HNO2
2. NH3 NH4+
3. OH− H2O
Ampholyte OR Amphiprotic Substances
• An ampholyte or amphiprotic substance is one that can react as either
an acid or base.
• Example:
CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l)  H3O+ (aq) + CH3COO−
The reaction can be broken down as follows:
CH3COOH (aq)  CH3COO− (aq) and
H2O (l)  H3O+ (aq)
In this reaction, CH3COOH is a proton donor and therefore the acid. In this
case water acts as a base because it accepts a proton to form H3O+
 Ampholyte Substance
• NH3 (aq) + H2O (I)  NH4+ (aq) + OH− (aq)
• The reaction can be broken down as follows:
H2O (I)  OH− (aq) and
NH3 (aq)  NH4+ (aq)

Water donates a proton and is therefore an acid in this reaction. Ammonia

accepts the proton and is therefore the base.
In the above examples wed notice an interesting thing about water, in the
first example we find that water acts as a base and in the other example
acts as an acid. Therefore water is said to be ampholyte.
 Reaction of acid with metal hydroxide
• When an acid reacts with a metal hydroxide a salt and water
are formed.
• Some examples are:
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq)  H2O (l)+ NaCl (aq)
2HBr (aq) + Mg(OH)2 (aq)  2H2O (l) + MgBr2 (aq)
We can write a general equation for this type of reaction:
nH+ (aq) + M(OH)n (aq)  nH2O (l) + Mn+ (aq)
Where n is the group number of the metal and M is the metal.
 Activity 2
• Write a balanced equation for the reaction between
HNO3 and KOH.

• Solution:
HNO3 (aq) + KOH (aq)  H2O (l) + KNO3 (aq)
 Reaction of acid with metal oxide
• When an acid reacts with a metal oxide a salt and water are also
formed.
• Some examples are:
2HCl (aq) + Na2O (aq)  H2O (l) + 2NaCl
2HBr (aq) + MgO  H2O (l) + MgBr2 (aq)

We can write a general equation for this type of reaction:

2y H+ (aq) + MxOy (aq)  yH2O (l) + xMn+ (aq)
Where n is the group number of the metal. The x and y represent the ratio in
which the metal combines with the oxide and depends on the valency of the
metal.
 Activity 3
• Write a balanced equation for the reaction between
HBr and K2O.
• Solution:
2HBr (aq) + K2O (aq)  H2O (l) + 2KBr (aq)
Reaction of acid with a metal carbonate
• When an acid reacts with a metal carbonate a salt,
carbon dioxide and water are formed.
• Some examples are:
2HNO3 (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq)  2NaNO3 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
H2SO4 (aq) + CaCO3 (aq)  CaSO4 + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
 INDICATORS
• An indicator is substance that changes colour in the
presence of an acid or base.
• An acid-base indicator is either a weak acid or weak
base that exhibits a colour change as the
concentration of hydrogen (H+ ) or hydroxide (OH- )
ions changes in an aqueous solution.
• Litmus and universal indicator are two indicators that
are commonly used in the laboratory.
 Continuing…
• Litmus paper comes as red litmus paper and blue
litmus paper.
• The table below shows the colour changes it can
make:
Red litmus Blue litmus
Acidic solution Stays red Turns red
Neutral solution Stays red Stays blue
Basic solution Turns blue Stays blue
 Continuing….
• Universal indicator changes colour in acidic solution
and in basic solution.
• Universal indicator depend on the pH of the solution.
• The pH scale enables us to determine the degree of
acidity of an acid or a base & goes from 0 to 14.
 Continuing….
• The table below shows the colour changes of the
universal indicators:
 INDICATORS
• For strong acid and strong base we use bromothymol
blue as indicator. pH = 7
• For strong acid and weak base to form acidic solution
we use methyl orange as indicator. pH< 7.
• For weak acid and strong base to form alkaline
solution we use phenolphthalein as indicator. pH> 7.
 Continuing…
Methyl orange Phenolphthalein
 Continuing….
• Bromothymol blue
 ACID-BASE REACTIONS
• Many salts can be produced from acid-base
reactions.
• The salt made depends on the acid and base used
• The salt contains the metal atom from the base, and
part of the acid molecule
 Continuing…
• Examples
H2SO4 + Na2O  Na2SO4 + H2O
2HCl + Na2O  H2O + 2NaCl
2HNO3 + Na2CO3  2NaNO3 + CO2 + H2O
• The salts of sulphuric acid are known as sulphates
• The salts of hydrochloric acid are known as chlorides
• The salts of nitric acid are known as nitrates
 NEUTRALISATION
• Neutralisation reactions are reactions in which an acid and a
base in an aqueous solution react to produce a salt and
water.
• A salt is any ionic compound made up of a cation from the
base and an anion from the acid.
• Neutralization occurs when equivalent molar quantities of an
acid and a hydroxide base are mixed, one mole of H+ from
an acid combines with 1 mole of OH- from a base to form
H2O.
 Continuing….
• . Writing Neutralization Reactions
acid + base  salt + water
example: HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
 Activity 4
• Predict the products for the following neutralization
reactions, and then balance each equation.
1. HNO3(aq) + KOH(aq) 
2. Ca(OH)2 (aq) + HCl (aq) 
 Solution
1. HNO3(aq) + KOH(aq)  KNO3 + H2O
2. Ca(OH)2 (aq) + 2HCl (aq)  CaCl2 + 2H2O
 Chemical Bonding
• Chemical Bonds are the attractive forces that hold
atoms together in more complex units.
• An understanding of how and why atoms attach
together in the manner they do is central to chemistry
• Lewis Theory Emphasizes the importance of valence
electrons
 Chemical bonding
• Uses dots to represent valence electrons either ON or
SHARED by atoms.
• Bonding between atoms occurs by either transfer or
sharing of electrons to achieve outer shells with 8
electrons (exceptions: Li, Be and He).
NB: the group number is the same as the number of
electrons of atoms.
 Formation of Ionic Compounds
• Atoms of many elements that LACK a complete octet
of electrons in their outer shells react in such a way to
attain it.
• They may lose or gain electrons depending on the
type of element the atom is (metal or nonmetal)
• Ion formation occurs when atoms of two elements (a
metal and nonmetal) are present.
• Recall: When a neutral atom loses or gains one or
more electrons an ion is formed.
 Continuing…
• The metal will lose one or more electrons - forms a
cation.
• The non-metal will gain one or more electrons - forms
an anion.
 Continuing…
• Example:
Continuing…
 Covalent Bonds
• Covalent bonding results from the SHARING of one
or more electron pairs between atoms.
• Most nonmetal elements try to achieve a NOBLE
GAS CONFIGURATION by sharing electrons with
other non-metals
• Example:
Continuing…
Continuing…
 REDOX REACTIONS
• Oxidation number is the total number of electrons that
an atom either gains or loses in order to form a
chemical bond with another atom.
• We will use reaction between magnesium and
chlorine as an example:
Mg (aq) + Cl2 (aq)  MgCl2 (aq)
 Continuing..
• If the oxidation number is negative (–) means
the atom gained electron:
e.g. Cl2  2Cl-
• The oxidation number of Cl2 was 0 then gain electrons
and became negative (-).
 Continuing….
• If the oxidation number is positive (+) this means the
atom lost electron:
e.g. Mg  Mg2+

• The oxidation number of Mg was 0 then gain

electrons and became positive (+).
 REDOX REACTIONS
• Oxidation numbers are assigned by a set of rules:
RULES EXAMPLES
1. When an atom exists as elements, they Sodium (Na), chlorine molecule (Cl2), neon
have an oxidation number of zero. (Ne), carbon (C) and hydrogen molecule
(H2) all have an oxidation number of zero.
2. The oxidation of monoatomic (one atom) Copper ions (Cu2+)has oxidation number of
ion is the same as the charge on the ion. +2, chloride (Cl- ) has an oxidation number
of – 1
3. Hydrogen in compounds has an Hydrogen in water (H2O), methane (CH4)
oxidation number of +1, except in metal and ammonia (NH3) have an oxidation
hydrides, where it is -1. number of +1. In sodium hydride (NaH), a
metal hydride, the oxidation number of
hydrogen is -1.
 Continuing…
RULES EXAMPLES
4. Oxygen in compounds has an oxidation Oxygen in magnesium oxide (MgO), sulphuric
number of -2, except in hydrogen peroxide, acid (H2SO4), water (H2O) and potassium
H2O2, where its oxidation number is -1. permanganate (KMnO4) have an oxidation
number of -2. In hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), the
oxidation number for oxygen is -1.
5. Polyatomic ions (ions containing more than For ammonium ion (NH4+), the sum of the
one atom), the sum of the oxidation numbers oxidation numbers is +1. For sulphate ions
equals the charge of the ion. (SO42-), the sum of the oxidation numbers is -2.
6. The sum of the oxidation numbers of atoms in The sum of the oxidation numbers for the atoms
a molecule is zero. in each of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) , butane
(C4H10), and water (H2O) is zero.
 Continuing…
• Example 1
Give the oxidation number of sulphur in sulphate(SO42-)
ion
• Solution:
Oxygen will have an oxidation number of -2 (this is not
a peroxide)
In polyatomic SO42- ion, the sum of the oxidation number
must be -2 (rule 5)
 Continuing..
Let oxidation number of sulphur be x. since we have
oxygen in sulphur ion the putting this together gives:

x + 4(-2) = -2
x = -2 + 8
x = +6
So the oxidation number of sulphur is +6
 Activity
• Give the oxidation number of nitrogen in ammonium
(NH4+) ion
• Solution
Let x be oxidation number of nitrogen and oxidation
number of hydrogen is +1.
The sum of oxidation number is +1.
x + 4(+1) = +1
x= +1 - 3
 continuing….
x= -3
So the oxidation number of nitrogen in ammonium ion is
-3
 Oxidation number continue..
• Example 2
Give the oxidation number of both elements in methane
(CH4).
• Solution :
Hydrogen will oxidation number of +1 (rule 3)
In compound CH4, the sum of the oxidation number is 0
(rule 6)
 Continuing…
Let x be oxidation number of carbon, then putting this
together gives:
x + 4(+1) = 0
x= 0 – 4
x= -4
Carbon has an oxidation number of – 4 and hydrogen
has an oxidation number of +1.
 Activity
• Give the oxidation number of both atoms in calcium
chloride (CaCl2).
• Solution:
This is ionic compound composed of Ca2+ and Cl- ions.
Using rule 2 the oxidation number of Ca is +2 and
oxidation number of Cl is -1.The sum of oxidation
number in CaCl2 must be zero (rule 6), therefore the
oxidation number of Cl is -2 and of Ca is +2
 OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
REACTIONS
• Reduction- Oxidation (Redox) reactions involve the
transfer of electrons from one atom to another.
• Oxidation is the loss of electrons (atom is oxidised).
Zn  Zn2+ + 2e-
Oxidation numbers: 0 +2 (Zn is oxidised)
• An atom that has lost electrons increases oxidation
number. i.e. Zn had oxidation number of 0 and lost 2
electrons and the oxidation number increased to +2.
 Continue…
• Therefore oxidation can also be defined as the
increase in oxidation number of an atom.
• Reduction is the gain of electrons (atom is reduced).
Cu2+ + 2e- 
Oxidation numbers: Cu+2 0 (Cu2+ is reduce
An atom that has gained electrons decreases oxidation
number. i.e. Cu2+ had oxidation number of +2 and
gained 2 electrons and the oxidation number decreased
to 0.
 Continue…
• Therefore reduction can also be defined as the
decrease of an oxidation number of an atom.
• The atom that is oxidised (increased oxidation number)
transfer electrons to the atom which is reduced
(decreased oxidation number).
 REDOX REACTIONS
• In a redox reaction there is an oxidising agent
and a reducing agent.
• The reducing agent is the substance that has
been oxidised.
• The oxidising agent is the substance that has
been reduced.
 Continue….
We use reaction of magnesium and oxygen as an
example to show the reducing and oxidising
agents:
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) → 2 MgO (s)
• Reduction reaction: O2 + 2e-  O2-
• In the reduction reaction oxygen has gained
electrons, which means is reduced and therefore is an
oxidising agent.
 Continuing..
• Oxidation reaction: Mg  Mg2+ + 2e-
• In the oxidation reaction magnesium has lost
electrons, which means is oxidised and therefore is
an reducing agent.
 Balancing equations
• The chemical equation is balanced when equal
numbers of atoms for each element involved in the
reaction are represented on the reactant and product
sides.
• Example :
CH4 + O2  H2O +CO2 (UNBALANCED)
CH4 + 2O2  2H2O +CO2 (BALANCED)
 Continuing…
ELEMENTS REACTANTS PRODUCTS BALANCED?
C 1X1= 1 1X1= 1 1=1 YES
H 4X1= 4 2X2= 4 4=4 YES
O 2X2= 4 (2X1)+ (1X2)= 4 4=4 YES

CH4 + 2O2  2H2O +CO2 (BALANCED) i.e number

of atoms on the reactants side is equal to the
number of atoms on the products side.
 Balancing redox reactions
• Redox reaction consists of two parts known as
oxidation and reduction reactions
• Half reaction is either the oxidation or the reduction
part of a redox reaction.
• E.g. Reduction half reaction: O2 + 2e- O2-
Oxidation half reaction: Mg  Mg2+ + 2e-
• The overall redox reaction: Mg + O2  Mg2++ O2-
 Continuing…
• To write the half reactions we use Standard Reduction
Potential Tables.
 Continuing…
• Example: balance the following redox reaction:
Fe2+ (aq) + Cl2 (aq)  Fe3+ (aq) +Cl- (aq)
Solution:
Step 1: write the reaction for each compound
Fe2+  Fe3+
Cl2  Cl-
 Continuing…
Step 2: balance the atoms on either side of the arrow.
Fe2+  Fe3+
Cl2  2Cl-
Step 3: add electrons to balance the charge.
Fe2+  Fe3+ + e-
Cl2 + 2e-  2Cl-
 Continuing..
Step 4: balance the number of electrons.
2Fe2+  2Fe3+ + 2e-
Cl2 + 2e-  2Cl-
We now have the two half-reactions for this redox
reaction
 Continuing….
Step 5: combine the two half-reactions
2Fe2+  2Fe3+ + 2e-
+ Cl2 + 2e-  2Cl-
2Fe2+ + Cl2 + 2e- 2Fe3+ + 2Cl- + 2e-
Step 6: write the final answer.
Cancelling out electrons gives:
2Fe2+ + Cl2  2Fe3+ + 2Cl-
 Activity
• Balance the following redox reaction:
Ag+ (aq) + Zn (s)  Ag (s) + Zn2+ (aq)
Solution:
Step 1: write the reaction for each compound
Ag+  Ag
Zn  Zn2+
 Continuing..
Step 2: balance the atoms on either side of the arrow
In this case atoms are balanced.
Step 3: add electrons to balance the charge.
Ag++ e-  Ag
Zn  Zn2+ + 2e-
Step 4: balance the number of electrons.
2Ag++ 2e-  2Ag
Zn  Zn2+ + 2e-
 Continue…
Step 5: combine the two half-reactions
2Ag++ 2e-  +2Ag
+ Zn  Zn2+ + 2e-
Zn + 2Ag++ 2e- Zn2+ +2Ag + 2e-
Step 6: write the final answer.
Zn + 2Ag+ Zn2+ +2Ag
 Acknowledgement of resources
• Siyavula physical sciences grade 11
• Physical sciences grade 11 examination guidelines
2015
• Webs.anokanamsey.edu.com
• Kutlwanong centre for maths, science and technology.
• NB. Teacher give more activities for each topic