Structures and functions of life

Tr Zaw
University of Medicine
Test Your Knowledge and
Check Your Understanding
1. Some living things do not require water to survive.
2. Some organisms grow by enlarging cells.
3. All living things use energy.
4. An organism’s classification can change with the discovery of new
information.
5. All new cells come from preexisting cells.
6. DNA is in the nucleus of every cell.
7. A flexible cell membrane surrounds every cell.
8. A cell’s mitochondria transform light energy into chemical energy.
9. Tissues are groups of similar types of cells that work together to
perform a function.
10. Viruses are harmful and never benefici
What is living thing(organism)?
1. Living Things Are Organized
 All living things are made of one or more cells.
 A cell is the smallest unit of an organism that carries on the functions of
life.
 Each cell has an orderly structure and contains the instructions for
cellular organization and function in its hereditary material.
What is living thing(organism)?
2. Living Things Grow and Develop
 Growth of a many-celled organism, such as a puppy, is mostly due to
an increase in the number of cells.
 In one-celled organisms, growth is due to an increase in the size of the
cell.
What is living thing(organism)?
3. Living Things Reproduce
 All living things eventually reproduce and make more of their own
kind.
 Some bacteria reproduce every 20 minutes, while it might take a pine
tree two years to produce seeds.
 Without reproduction, living things would not exist.
What is living thing(organism)?
4. Living Things Respond
 Living things must interact with their surroundings.
 Anything that causes some change in an organism is a stimulus.
 The reaction to a stimulus is a response.
 An organism must respond to stimuli to carry on its daily activity and
to survive.
 Tropisms

 phototropism—a response in which

plants turn toward the light
 geotropism—a response in which roots
grow toward the earth and the shoots
and flowers grow toward the sky
 thigmotropism—a response in which
plants curl around any object they touch
 hydrotropism—a response in which
plants’ roots grow toward a source of
water
 chemotropism—a positive attraction of
roots toward the presence of certain
chemicals
What is living thing(organism)?

5. Living Things Maintain

Homeostasis
 Living things also must respond to stimuli
that occur inside.
 The organism then makes internal changes
to maintain the right amounts of water and
food in its cells.
 An organism’s ability to keep the proper
conditions inside no matter what is going on
outside the organism is called homeostasis.
Negative Feedback and Positive
Feedback
 Homeostasis is typically achieved via negative feedback loops, but can
be affected by positive feedback loops.
 An organism’s ability to keep the proper conditions inside no matter
what is going on outside the organism is called homeostasis.
 There are several examples of negative feedback, whereas
positive feedback is much less common in organisms.
Negative feedback loop of
osmoregulation
Positive feedback in animals
 A baby suckling on the mother’s nipple will activate receptors in the nipple.
 The receptors will send signals to the brain via neurons telling the pituitary
gland to release two important hormones; prolactin and oxytocin.
 Prolactin stimulates milk production in the breast tissues, while oxytocin
stimulates smooth muscles contraction of the breast allowing the milk to eject
out of the nipples.
 The more the baby sucks, the greater the amount of milk produced.
What is living thing(organism)?
6. All living things show some kinds of movement.
 This is more obvious in animals since they have organs of movement
or locomotion.
 Movements in plants mainly take place inside the cells although some
results from a stimulus such as light.
What is living thing(organism)?
7. Living Things use energy
 The energy used by most organisms comes either directly or
indirectly from the Sun.
 Plants and some other organisms can use light energy, carbon
dioxide, and water to make food. You take in and use food as a
source of energy.
 In order to release the energy in food, you and many other
organisms must take in oxygen.
 Some bacterial can’t use light energy to produce food; instead,
the bacteria use energy stored in some chemical compounds and
carbon dioxide to make food.
Characteristics of living things
 Adaptation: The ability to adjust to a changing external environment.
 Growth: The ability to increase in size in all or some of its parts, not
just acquiring more matter.
 Homeostasis: The ability to regulate its own internal environment to
maintain a cell or body at a relatively constant state.
 Metabolism: The transfer of energy by consumption of matter or
chemicals or through photosynthesis.
 Organization: Being composed of one or more cells.
 Reproduction: The ability to reproduce either sexually or asexually
(without sex).
 Response to stimuli: The ability to react to external stimuli, including
light, sound, and heat. Responses may vary from the most basic
chemical response of a single-cell organism to motion resulting from
the perception of a complex sensory system.
 Cell theory

The cell theory explains the relationship

between cells and living things.
It has three components:
1. All living things are made of one or more
cells.
2. Cells are the smallest unit of structure and
function in all living things.
3. New cells can only be produced from other
cells.
Unicellular and multicellular
organisms
 All living things are made of cells, the basic unit of life.
 Some organisms, like bacteria and protozoa, are unicellular—they
consist of a single cell.
 Others, like plants and animals, are multicellular, consisting of many
different types of specialized cells. For example, humans have skin
cells, blood cells, and nerve cells, to name just a few.
Stem cell
 Stem cells are a special type of cells that have two important properties.
 They are able to make more cells like themselves. That is, they self-renew.
And they can become other cells that do different things in a process known
as differentiation.
HPCs
Specialized Cells

 Specialized cell’s structure helps it to carry out a unique function

within the body.
 Muscle cells, for example, must be able to contract so the body can
move.
 Nerve cells (neurons) have long appendages for transmitting
signals throughout the body.
 Each type of cell is specialized for a particular job.
 All cells carry out the basic
life functions:
1. movement,
2. growth,
3. cell maintenance,
4. reproduction, and
5. the manufacture of
specialized substances.
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

 In bacteria, the genetic material consists of a single molecule

suspended in the cytoplasm. Bacteria are called prokaryotes.
 In all other cells, the genetic material is contained within a nucleus.
Such cells are called eukaryotic cells. All plant and animal cells are
eukaryotic.
Cell structure and components
 Although cells differ widely in size and appearance, they all have basic
structures in common.
 All cells have a cell membrane, a structure that keeps the cell’s
contents separate from its external environment.
 The cell membrane is selectively permeable, which means that it
allows certain substances, such as water, nutrients, and wastes, to pass
between the cell’s interior and the surrounding environment.
 Inside the cell membrane is the cytoplasm, a watery, jellylike substance
that can include other cell structures.
 Finally, all cells have genetic material, which contains coded
instructions for carrying out the cell’s activities.
Structure of cell membrane

 The plasma membrane is made up primarily of a bilayer of

phospholipids with embedded proteins, carbohydrates, glycolipids,
and glycoproteins, and in animal cells, cholesterol. It separates the
cytoplasm from the external environment.
 The phosphate head of these molecules are in contact with aqueous
fluid both inside and outside of the cell. Thus, their surfaces are
hydrophilic.
 The fatty acid tails are facing each other and forming hydrophobic or
non-polar region in the interior of the membrane.
Movement of substances across the
membrane
 Substances may pass through the cell membrane either passively by
diffusion or actively by some form of active transport.
Passive transport

 Passive transport is a movement of ions and other atomic or

molecular substances across cell membranes without need of energy
input. The main kinds of passive transport are
1. diffusion,
2. facilitated diffusion and
3. osmosis.
Osmotic concentration in animal cells
 The osmotic concentration of a solution is a measure of only those
dissolved substances that have an osmotic effect.
1. Isotonic solution : the osmotic concentration of the solutes in the
solution is the same as that in the cell.
2. Hypotonic solution: the osmotic concentration of the solutes in the
solution is lower than that in the cytoplasm of the cell (higher water
potential).
3. Hypertonic solution: the osmotic concentration of the solutes in the
solution is higher than that in the cytoplasm of the cell (lower water
potential).
 Active transport

 Active transport is the transport of

substances from a region of lower
concentration to a region of higher
concentration across membranes
against the concentration
gradient with the use of cell’s
energy (ATP). A carrier protein is
required in active transport.
 The carrier protein has a receptor site
and the substance binds to it from
one side of the membrane. A
molecule of ATP is required to change
the shape of the carrier protein and
the substance is released on the
other side of the membrane.
 Enzymes

 Enzymes are mostly proteins, which are able to act as a catalyst in biochemical
reactions.
 Enzymes can speed up the rate of the metabolic reactions.
 Enzymes remain unchanged after the reaction.
 Therefore, one enzyme molecule can catalyze the same reaction many times.
 Many enzyme names end in –ase e.g. amylase, lipase and protease.
 A small area on the surface of an enzyme is called the active site in
which specific substrate can bind.
 Then enzyme substrate complex is formed and products are produced.
The specific binding of enzyme molecule and the substrate molecule
are regarded as “lock and key model”.
 It is because the active site is similar to the key hole of the lock, which
is only fit with specific key, the substrate.
 A cofactor is a non-protein chemical compound or metallic ion that assists
in an enzyme’s activity as a catalyst.
 Cofactors can be divided into two types: inorganic cofactor and organic
cofactor called coenzyme.
 The coenzyme NAD (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide) used in the
respiration comes from nicotinic acid, a member of the vitamin B complex.
Internal structure of leaf
 Chloroplast of leaf
 Chloroplast is a membrane bound organelle containing chlorophyll a, b and
other pigments.
 Plant cells contain chloroplasts which are green in colour.
 The most important function of chloroplast is to synthesize food by the process
of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Aerobic respiration
 In aerobic respiration, glucose is broken down to release energy in the
presence of oxygen, forming carbon dioxide and water.
 The balanced chemical equation for aerobic respiration is as follow:
Anaerobic respiration
 Anaerobic respiration is the breakdown of glucose into energy in the
absence of oxygen.
 In this process, the amount of energy released is relatively small and
the type of end products varies.
 Microorganisms such as yeast respire anaerobically by converting
glucose into ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide. This process is also
termed as alcohol fermentation. Like aerobic respiration, the
process takes place slowly and in a series of steps
 During strenuous exercise, not enough oxygen may reach the body
muscles for aerobic respiration.
 Muscle tissue respires anaerobically to release energy. Most of the
enzyme-catalysed reactions of aerobic respiration do not happen
without oxygen.
 As a result, the glucose is not broken down to carbon dioxide and
water, but to lactic acid instead.
 Based on the information in the chart above, which of the following
animals are vertebrates?
 A. crustaceans
 B. amphibians
 C. insects
 D. round worms
How to count tree ring for age?
 If you cut a horizontal cross section through the trunk of a tree, you can see the tree’s
growth rings (also known as tree rings). Each ring inside the trunk of a tree represents
the annual growth of the tree. There are two parts of a growth ring. The inner part is
formed during the early growth season (spring and early summer in North America)
and is relatively less dense. The outer part of each ring is denser and is formed during
the late summer and autumn. The growing conditions of a particular year will affect
the size of a ring. In ideal growing conditions (such as adequate moisture and a
relatively long growing season), a ring may be larger because the tree was able to
grow more during that time. However, a cold summer or a drought can cause the ring
size to be smaller than normal. Researchers can use tree rings to learn about the
growing conditions that were present during a particular time period. The tree
depicted below was cut down at the end of the growing year in 2000.
 Based on the figure, which of the following years was the best growing season?
 A. 2000
 B. 1999
 C. 1998
 D. 1997
 How old is the tree represented in the figure?
 A. 6 years
 B. 7 years
 C. 8 years
 D. 9 years
Which of the following is NOT a function performed by all cells?
A. reproducing
B. producing food
C. building proteins
D. converting energy
Which of the following organisms are prokaryotes and
which are eukaryotes?

a. The bacterium that causes tuberculosis.

b. A humpback whale.
c. A honey mushroom

Which type of cell has chromosomes?

(1) the prokaryotic cell
(2) the eukaryotic cell
(3) both the prokaryotic cell and the eukaryotic cell
(4) neither one
(5) it varies with the species from which the cell came
Which statement is supported by the cell theory?

A. A single cell is not considered a living thing.

B. Anything that has cells is considered a living thing.
C. All living things are made of the same types of cells.
D. A living thing can absorb new cells from the environment.

Whose cell does not contain membrane-bound organelles?

a. Fungi
b. bacteria
c. Ameba
d. Protozoa
Prokaryotic cells were discovered much later than
eukaryotic cells, even though they have been on earth for
a much longer time. Which of the following would best
explain why this is true?

(1) Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus.

(2) Eukaryotic cells have organelles, which are easy to see.
(3) You can see only the nucleus
(4) Prokaryotic cells are smaller and require better
microscopes to see.
(5) Eukaryotic cells have a cell membrane to help outline
the cell.
Which of the following organelles are associated with the job of
cellular digestion?

a. Lysosomes and peroxisomes

b. Golgi apparatus and vesicles
c. Nucleus and nucleolus
d. Smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum

Which cell group does not possess a true nucleus?

a. Prokaryotes
b. Eukaryotes
c. Plants
d. Animals
Which of the following is found in all prokaryotic cells
but only some eukaryotic cells?

a. Cell membrane
b. Cell wall
c. Mitochondria
d. Ribosome

Where in the cell are proteins synthesized?

a. Mitochondria
b. Vacuole
c. Ribosomes
d. Nucleus
 Which of the following is NOT a feature found in all cells?

a. Proteins
b. Cell wall
c. Ribosomes
d. Cell membrane

One property that distinguishes cells in domain Eukarya from

those in
domain Bacteria is the presence of

a. a cell wall.
b. flagella.
c. DNA.
d. membranous organelles
1. In addition to the cell wall, the water stored in a plant cell’s vacuole helps give
the plant firmness and shape. When a plant is not taking in enough water
from the soil through its roots, it uses up its stored water and its vacuoles
shrink. When the vacuoles shrink, the plant wilts. Which of the following is a
conclusion based on the paragraph above rather than a given fact?
A. Cell walls help give a plant cell firmness and shape.
B. Vacuoles help give a plant cell firmness and shape.
C. Plants take in water from the soil through their roots.
D. Cell walls cannot maintain a plant’s shape and rigidity when the plant lacks
water.

1. A student is examining a cell using a microscope. She is able to identify the

cell membrane, cytoplasm, a small vacuole, and the nucleus, but she does not
see a cell wall or any chloroplasts. She concludes that the cell is a eukaryotic
cell. Which of the following is evidence that her conclusion is correct?
A. the presence of a nucleus
B. the presence of cytoplasm
C. the absence of chloroplasts
D. the absence of a cell wall
1. Cells were first seen during the 1600s, when English scientist Robert Hooke observed
cork cell walls through a microscope that could magnify a specimen a couple of hundred
times its original size. In the 1800s, the compound light microscope, which magnifies up
to a thousand times, was developed. Electron microscopes, which can magnify up to a
million times, were invented during the 1900s. Which of the following best explains why
our knowledge of cells has grown with improvements in microscope technology?
A. Each time the microscope is improved, scientists can see cell structures more clearly.
B. With the first microscopes, all cell structures were clearly visible.
C. Compound light microscopes can magnify cells up to a thousand times.
D. Robert Hooke’s microscope only allowed him to see the largest cell structures.

1. Diffusion is a process by which particles move from an area of higher concentration to

an area of lower concentration. For example, oxygen diffuses through the cell
membrane of a unicellular pond organism from the water, where there is lots of oxygen,
into the cell, where there is less oxygen. Eventually, the concentration of oxygen inside
and outside the unicellular organism is the same. What would happen if the
concentration of oxygen were greater in the unicellular organism than in its watery
environment?
A. Water would diffuse from the unicellular organism into the pond water.
B. Oxygen would diffuse from the unicellular organism into the pond water.
C. Oxygen would diffuse from the pond water into the unicellular organism.
D. Diffusion of oxygen between the organism and the pond water would stop entirely
Which characteristic best explains why most
scientists do not consider viruses to be living
things?
A. Viruses lack cells.
B. Viruses have no nucleus.
C. Viruses contain no DNA.
D. Viruses can contain enzymes.
5. Bacteria, like all cells, use the instructions in DNA to make proteins.
Place a circle on the diagram to indicate the cell structure that is
responsible for building proteins.
6. Which of the following are the two best methods to reduce the spread
of diseases caused by pathogens?
A. sanitation and immunization
B. immunization and isolation
C. isolation and antibiotics
D. antibiotics and sanitation

Which type of cell has a defined nucleus containing genetic

information?

(1) the eukaryotic cell

(2) the prokaryotic cell
(3) neither one
(4) both the prokaryotic cell and the eukaryotic cell
(5) it varies with the species from which the cell came
Match
Nucleus

 Largest organelle within the cell

 Structure _double-layered membrane, envelope
_pores or openings in this envelope
Due to these pores, large molecules pass from nucleoplasm to cytoplasm
 Function
control centre influencing the metabolic function of cells
determine the cell’s characteristics
Inner structure of nucleus

 Chromatin_ masses of threads within the nucleus

 Indistinct in non-dividing cell
 In dividing cell, it condenses to rod-like structures called
chromosomes at the time of cell division
Chemical analysis

 Chromatin and thus chromosomes contain DNA along with

proteins
 Some RNA
 DNA with RNA controls protein synthesis within the cytoplasm
 Thus, function of DNA controls the cell
Normal karyotype of human chromosome
Chromosomes at replication
Structure of DNA
 Central Dogma
The central dogma of molecular biology is a theory stating
that genetic information flows from DNA, to RNA, to
protein, or RNA directly to protein.

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 Nucleic acids are the main
information-carrying molecules of the
cell which direct the process of protein
synthesis by determining the inherited
characteristics of every living thing.
 The two main classes of nucleic acids
are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
 DNA is the master blueprint for life
and constitutes the genetic material in
all free-living organisms and most
viruses.
 RNA is the genetic material of certain
viruses, but it is also found in all living
cells, where it plays an important role
in certain processes such as the
making of proteins. 81
The Structure of DNA
 DNA is a double helix structure consisting of two polynucleotide
strands twine around each other.
 Each polynucleotide strand is made up of many nucleotide
molecules.
 Each nucleotide in DNA is composed of a five-carbon
deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-
containing base, all linked together by covalent bonds (Figure
2.1 A and B).

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wikipedia.or
 Four different nitrogenous bases in DNA that can be categorized into two
different forms: purines and pyrimidines.
 The purine bases are adenine (A) and guanine (G). They have two fused
rings in their chemical structures.
 The pyrimidine bases are cytosine (C) and thymine (T). They have a
single ring in their chemical structure 5’ 3’

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3’ 5’
The Structure of RNA
 Like DNA, RNA is a polymer of
nucleotides.
 RNA contains four nucleotides with
the bases adenine (A), uracil (U),
cytosine (C), and guanine (G).
 Unlike DNA, RNA is single-
stranded.
 However, tRNA can fold back on
itself, and complementary base
pairing within the same molecule
stabilizes the looped structure.
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85
Two steps in protein synthesis; transcription and translation
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The genetic code
 During translation, a cell
“reads” the information in
a messenger RNA (mRNA)
and uses it to build a
polypeptide chain or a
protein.

 In an mRNA, the
instructions for building a
polypeptide are RNA
nucleotides (As, Us, Cs,
and Gs) read in groups of
three. These groups of 87

three are called codons.

 There are 61 codons for amino acids, and each of them is "read" to
specify a certain amino acid out of the 20 commonly found in
proteins. One codon, AUG, specifies the amino acid methionine and
also acts as a start codon to signal the start of protein construction.

 There are three more codons that do not specify amino acids. These
stop codons, UAA, UAG, and UGA, tell the cell when a polypeptide is
complete. All together, this collection of codon-amino acid
relationships is called the genetic code, because it lets cells
“decode” an mRNA into a chain of amino acids.

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