FORENSIC 2

PERSONAL
IDENTIFICATION
TECHNIQUES
FORENSIC DEFINED
Refers to the application of scientific knowledge to legal problems,
especially scientific analysis of physical evidence (as from a crime
scene). Forensics, generally speaking, is scientific knowledge meant
to be applied in court. Is the application of the principles of
various sciences in solving problems in connection with the
administration of justice.

Comes from the Latin term forēnsis, meaning "of or before the
forum". The history of the term originates in Roman times, when a
criminal charge meant presenting the case before a group of public
individuals in the forum. Both the person accused of the crime and
the accuser would give speeches based on their sides of the story.
The case would be decided in favor of the individual with the best
argument and delivery. This origin is the source of the two modern
usages of the word forensic—as a form of legal evidence; and as a
FORENSIC SCIENCE DEFINED
Forensic science, also known as criminalistics, is the
application of science to criminal and civil laws, mainly—
on the criminal side— during criminal investigation, as
governed by the legal standards of admissible evidence
and criminal procedure.

Forensic science is a broad field that includes; DNA

analysis, fingerprint analysis, bloodstain pattern
analysis, firearms examination and ballistics, tool mark
analysis, serology, toxicology, hair and fiber analysis,
entomology, questioned documents, anthropology,
odontology, pathology, epidemiology, footwear and tire
tread analysis, drug chemistry, paint and glass analysis,
DR. HANS GROSS
During the 19th century, DR. HANS GROSS (Hans
Gustav Adolf Gross; December 12, 1847 - December 9,
1915), an Austrian – known as the “Father of
Criminalistics”, defined SEARCH FOR TRUTH as the basis
and ultimate goal of all criminal investigations.

An Austrian criminal jurist and an examining magistrate

who is believed to be the creator of the field of
criminalistics and is to this day seen as the Father of
Criminal Investigation; he taught as a professor at the
Chernivtsi University, Prague University and the University
of Graz. He was also the Father of the Austrian
1.1. Discuss the other
methods of personal
identification
(DBA, forensic
odontology) Henry FBI
classification
formula and filing
system of classified
PERSONAL
IDENTIFICATION
Personal Identification is the
individualizing
process of human
person.
✔ Fingerprint
✔ Palm Prints
✔ Sole Prints
✔ Voice Prints
✔ Bite Marks
✔ Ear Prints
✔ Lip Prints
✔ Tattoos
✔ Skeletal Material
Aspects of Personal Identification
Of the different aspects of personal
identification, it was proven beyond doubt and
by the proper authorities concerned that
FINGERPRINT is:
1.The only infallible system of identification
throughout the world.
2. It is the most convincing proof of man’s
individuality.
3.It enables to unmask the real identity of
the law breaker.
FINGERPRINT
Dactyloscopy – the science of fingerprint identification;
the identification of a person through examination and
comparison of fingerprint, derived from the Greek words:
Dactylos – a finger and Skopien – to examine; branches
are:
a.Chiroscopy – deals with the study of the PALMS of
the hand, derived from the Greek words: Cheir – a hand
and Skopien – to examine.
b.Podoscopy – deals with the study of the SOLE of the
foot, derived from the Greek words: Podo – a foot and
Skopien – to examine.
c.Poroscopy – covers the study of the SWEAT PORES found
in the friction skin, derived from Greek words: Poros – pores
PALM PRINT
A palm print refers to an image acquired of the palm
region of the hand. It can be either an online image (i.e.
taken by a scanner or CCD) or offline image where the
image is taken with ink and paper.

The palm itself consists of principal lines, wrinkles

(secondary lines), and epidermal ridges. It differs to a
fingerprint in that it also contains other information such
as texture, indents and marks which can be used when
comparing one palm to another.

Palm prints can be used for criminal, forensic, or

commercial applications. Palm prints, typically from the
palm, are often found at crime scenes as the result of the
offender's gloves slipping during the commission of the
crime, and thus exposing part of the unprotected hand.
PALM PRINT
Laboratory comparison of palm prints and sole prints
follows the same general principles as fingerprint
comparison. There are several areas on palms and
soles, generally referred to as zone areas, which
contain the rich patterns and deltas.
The thick part of the palm on the radial
(thumb) side makes up the thenar zone, whereas
that of the ulnar (little finger) side is the
hypothenar zone.
The areas near the wrist are referred to as the
carpal delta
zone.
The elevated area just behind the fingers and
above the center of the palm is the palmar zone.
The raised areas between each pair of finger,
running from thumb to little finger, are designated by
the roman numerals I, II, III, and IV.
The lines on the center of the palm are called
creases. Comparison of palm prints found at scenes
SOLE PRINT
Friction ridge skin present on the soles of the feet
and toes (plantar surfaces) is as unique in its ridge
detail as are the fingers and palms (palmar
surfaces). When recovered at crime scenes or on
items of evidence, sole and toe impressions can be
used in the same manner as finger and palm prints to
effect identifications. Footprint (toe and sole friction
ridge skin) evidence has been admitted in courts in the
United States since 1934.

The footprints of infants, along with the thumb or

index fingerprints of mothers, are still commonly
recorded in hospitals to assist in verifying the identity
of infants. Often, the only identifiable ridge detail
that can be seen on a baby's foot is from the large toe
or adjacent to the large toe.
SOLE PRINT
There are also zone areas on the foot. The proximal area
sole is the calcarzone, the name being derived of from the
that
heel
of the bone.
The center of the sole is the tread
area.
The ball pattern zone is located on the ball of the foot
big
on toe side; the remainder of this area
the is called
pattern
the plantar
zone.
There are two other zones as well. The tibial pattern zone
located
is in the center of the tread area at the medial
the arch.
portion of This area is reproduced in a print only if the
flat feet. Near
individual has the distal end of tread area is the fibular
zone
pattern
.The ball plantar and calcar zones are the most important
for sole prints comparisons.
portions They contain not only
ridges,
well deltas, and patters, but also large areas with details
delineated
be
thatused
can to make positive
comparisons.
 DNA
FINGERPRINTING
DNA FINGERPRINTING
A laboratory technique used to determine the
probable identity of a person based on the
nucleotide sequences of certain regions of
human DNA that are unique to individuals.
DNA fingerprinting is used in a variety of situations,
such as criminal investigations, other forensic
purposes, and paternity testing. In these
situations, one aims to “match” two DNA
fingerprints with one another, such as a DNA
sample from a known person and one from an
unknown person.
ODONTOLOGICAL
PATTERNS
FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY
Forensic odontology is a branch of dentistry
which deals with the proper handling and
examination of dental evidence and the
proper evaluation and presentation of
dental findings in the interest of justice.
In the present scenario, forensic odontology has
been included as a specialty in the broad arena
of Forensic Sciences.
Forensic odontology has become an integral part
of large international forensic educational
organizations like American Academy of Forensic
Sciences (AAFS) as well as International Association
of Identification (IAI).
FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY
The primary utility of forensic odontology is in
identification of human remains based upon the
individualistic characteristics present in the teeth of
different individuals. This discipline plays a significant role
in the identification of human remains in incidents such
as tsunamis, earthquakes, land slides, bomb blasts
and terrorist attacks, airplane crashes, train and road
accidents, etc. where highly mutilated and
dismembered dead bodies are recovered which are
beyond recognition.
This process of identification of the disaster victims is
known as Disaster Victim Identification (DVI). Teeth
are the strongest part of the human body, which can
withstand high explosion and are not damaged by such
incidents. Thus, teeth are likely to be recovered in mass
fatality incidents where the other means of
FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY
Adult human dentition comprises of incisors,
canines, premolars and molars that vary in
shape, size, and inter-spaces between the teeth
among different individuals. The way these teeth
are arranged in different oral cavities are unique in
every individual.
At the same time, every tooth possesses a set of
unique characteristics called ‘tooth class
characteristics’ which form the basis of
identification. The other features which help in
identification are dental pathology, restorations,
dental anomalies, etc. Besides, age, sex, race/
ethnicity, occupation, and habits etc. can be
determined from teeth.
BITE MARKS
The teeth are unique to an individual; even a single
tooth of a person is highly individualist to a person. Bite
marks inflicted by the teeth are similarly considered
highly individualistic to a person and are hence of
considerable importance from a forensic point of
view. This aspect of forensic odontology has received
substantial attention in scientific writings and media to its
controversial aspect.
 VOICEPRINT
INDIVIDUALIZATION
VOICEPRINT IDENTIFICATION
Voiceprint identification can be defined as a combination
of both aural (listening) and spectrographic
(instrumental) comparison of one or more known
voices with an unknown voice for identification or
elimination. Developed by Bell Laboratories in the late
1940s for military intelligence purposes, the modern-day
forensic utilization of the technique did not start until the
late 1960s following its adoption by the Michigan State
Police. From 1967 until the present, more than 5,000
law enforcement related voice identification cases have
been processed by certified voiceprint examiners.
THE SOUND SPECTROGRAPH
The sound spectrograph, an automatic sound wave
analyzer, is a basic research instrument used in many
laboratories for research studies of sound, music and
speech. It has been widely used for the analysis and
classification of human speech sounds and in the analysis
and treatment of speech and hearing disorders.
The instrument produces a visual representation of a
given set of sounds in the parameters of time, frequency
and amplitude. The analog spectrograph is composed of
four basic parts; (1) a magnetic tape
recorder/playback unit, (2) a tape scanning device
with a drum which carries the paper to be marked,
(3) an electronic variable filter, and (4) an electronic
stylus which transfers the analyzed information to
THE SOUND SPECTROGRAPH
The analog sound spectrograph samples energy levels in a
small frequency range from a magnetic tape recording and
marks those energy levels on electrically sensitive paper.
This instrument then analyses the next small frequency
range and samples and marks the energy levels at that
point. This process is repeated until the entire desired
frequency range is analyzed for that portion of the
recording. The finished product is called a spectrogram
and is a graphic depiction of the patterns, in the form of
bars or formants, of the acoustical events during the time
frame analyzed.
The machine will produce a spectrogram in approximately
eighty seconds. The spectrogram is in the form of an X,Y
graph with the X axis the time dimension, approximately 2.4
seconds in length, and the Y axis the frequency range, usually
0 to 4000 or 8000 Hz. The degree of darkness of the markings
indicates the approximate relative amplitude of the energy
 FINGERPRINT
CLASSIFICATION
SYSTEM
(HENRY/GALTON
System with the FBI
MODIFICATION and
EXTENSION)
Divisions of
Classifications
1. Primary
Sub-
2. Secondary Key
Major
Division
Primary
Classificati
Secondary
Classificati
Secondary Final
Classificati
s on on
a. Capital Letter on

Groups 20 S-M-L 1 aUrt IOI 10

b. Small Letter I-M-
1 rWta IMO 14
Groups O

3. Sub-Secondary
4. Major Divisions
5. Final
Classification
-is the method of attaining a formula in a set of
fingerprints placed in the fingerprint card or chart.

Classification Formula
-is the numerical description in a set of fingerprints,
which is composed of letters and figures written
above and below the classification line like a fraction.

Classification Line
-refers to a long line which is usually placed on the
right upper corner of the fingerprint card or chart
where classification formula is written.
PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION
- is the summation of the numerical value assigned to whorl,
appearing in the fingerprint chart, which is expressed as numerator and
denominator plus the pre- established fraction of 1/1.
Why do we have a pre-established fraction of 1/1.
(a) To give the numbered value groups a place in the file.
(b) Zero over zero might be mistaken for the ridge tracing of outer over
outer in filing.

Blocking
- is the process of writing below each fingerprint pattern the corresponding
symbol of its name.

Patterns as to Numerical Value

(c) Pattern with numerical value - all Whorl
(d) Pattern without numerical value - Arches and Loops
Four Stages to Obtain Primary Classification
1.Pairing - the ten (10) fingers from the corresponding fingers are
divided into five (5) pairs in all, as follows:
(a) First Pair-Right Thumb and Right Index
(b) Second Pair- Right Middle Finger and right Ring Finger
(c) Third Pair- Right Little finger and Left Thumb
(d) Fourth Pair- Left Index Finger and Left Middle Finger
(e) Fifth Pair- Left Ring Finger and Left Little Finger

2. The second step is to assign numerical values assigned to the

corresponding fingers, are permanent.
#1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Right Thumb Right Index Right Middle Right Ring Right Little
16 16 8 8 4

#6 #7 #8 #9 #10
Left Thumb Left Index Left Middle Left Ring Left Little
4 2 2 1 1
 3.The third step is to know the numerator and denominator in the pairs. The
first pattern of every pair is the denominator, while the second pattern of the
pair is the numerator. The numerator and denominator of the primary
classification are then formed as follows.

NUMERATOR = Even Fingers (No. 2,4,6,8, and

10) DENOMINATOR Odd Fingers (No. 1,3,5,7, and
9)

4.The fourth step is to get the sum total of the numerical values of whorl
assigned to the fingers plus the pre-established fraction of 1/1.
 #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Right Thumb Right Index Right Middle Right Ring Right Little
16 16 8 8 4
W W W
#6 #7 #8 #9 #10
Left Thumb Left Index Left Middle Left Ring Left Little
4 2 2 1 1
W W W
 0+8+0+2+
0
= 10 + 1 = 11

16 + 8 + 0+ 2
+
1 = 27 + 1 =
28
#1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Right Thumb Right Index Right Middle Right Ring Right Little
16 16 8 8 4
W W W
#6 #7 #8 #9 #10
Left Thumb Left Index Left Middle Left Ring Left Little
4 2 2 1 1
W W W
 #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Right Thumb Right Index Right Middle Right Ring Right Little
16 16 8 8 4
W W W
#6 #7 #8 #9 #10
Left Thumb Left Index Left Middle Left Ring Left Little
4 2 2 1 1
W
 0+8+0+0+
1
= 9 + 1 = 10

16 + 8 + 0+ 0
+
0 = 24 + 1 =
25
#1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Right Thumb Right Index Right Middle Right Ring Right Little
16 16 8 8 4
W W W
#6 #7 #8 #9 #10
Left Thumb Left Index Left Middle Left Ring Left Little
4 2 2 1 1
W
SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION
The secondary classification is based on the types of patterns
appearing on the index fingers. Each pattern is represented by a capital
and small lettered group.

Secondary Classification by capital Lettered Group

This is done by exhibiting the capital letter symbol of the
individual type of patterns from the two (2) index fingers after
the primary classification. A combination of the following symbol may
come out:
A = Plain Arch ; T = Tented Arch ; R = Radial Loop ; U
= Ulnar Loop W = Plain Whorl ; C = central Pocket Loop
D = Double Loop ; X = Accidental Pattern

Secondary Classification by Small Lettered Groups

The secondary classification refers to the three (3) types of
 #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Right Thumb Right Index Right Middle Right Ring Right Little
16 16 8 8 4
W4↓ R12 C2↑ D1↓ A
#6 #7 #8 #9 #10
Left Thumb Left Index Left Middle Left Ring Left Little
4 2 2 1 1
A W2↓ X3↑ W3↓ T
 Ra
aW
#1
Right Thumb
16
#2
Right Index
16
#3
Right Middle
8
#4
Right Ring
8
#5
t
Right Little
4
W4↓ R12 C2↑ D1↓ A
#6 #7 #8 #9 #10
Left Thumb Left Index Left Middle Left Ring Left Little
4 2 2 1 1
A W2↓ X3↑ W3↓ T
SUB-SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION

Based upon the ridge count or ridge tracing

in the index, middle and ring fingers;
- Ridge Counting refers to loops
- Ridge Tracing refers to whorls
-Ridge count is the total number of
ridges intervening between the Delta and
Core, (Delta and core are not included in the
count)
Rules in Ridge Count of Loops
1. Ridge count always starts from the Delta to
the Core.or ridges are counted only when they actually crossed or touched
2. Ridge
lie between the Delta and the Core.
a straight
a. Trifurcation is counted as 3 ridge; b. A bifurcation is counted as 2
ridge
c. Criss crossing of two ridges as 2 ridges; d. Meeting of two ridges
as 2 ridge
e. Enclosure or Island ridge as 2 ridge; f. Ending ridge is counted as
1 ridge
Table for symbols of loops as a result of Ridge Count
g. Dot ridge is counted as 1 ridge; h. Long or short ridge is counted
1. as
A1 ridge
ridge count of 1-9, inclusive of the two Index fingers is
into symbol capital Letter I for Inner, while 10 or more is O
deducted
forAouter.
2. ridge count of 1-10, inclusive of the two middle
deducted
fingers is into symbol capital letter I for Inner, while 11 or
for
more is O
outer.
3. A ridge count of 1-13, inclusive of the two ring fingers is
into symbol capital letter I for Inner, while 14 or more is O
deducted
for Outer.
Rules in Ridge Tracings
1.Ridge tracing always starts from the left delta going to the right delta
or nearest to that point.
2.When the ridge being traced ends abruptly, the next ridge below is
treated as its continuity to affect the tracing.
3. When the left delta is at the end of a ridge or on a Dot ridge, the next
ridge just
below is tracked down to culminate the tracing.
4.When the ridge being traced forks into two branches, the lower
branch is trailed until the tracing is consummated.

Tables for Symbols of Whorl As A Result Of Ridge Tracing

5. When the ridge being traced (from the left delta) goes inside
or in front
of the right delta, and there are 3 or more intervening ridges, the
tracing is known as Inner and represented by Capital Letter
symbol I.
2. When the ridge being traced goes either inside or outside the
right delta,
and there are 2 or less ridges intervening, the tracing is known as
Meeting and represented by the symbol capital letter M.
3. When the ridge being traced goes outside or below the right
 #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Right Thumb Right Index Right Middle Right Ring Right Little
16 16 8 8 4
W4↓ R12 C2↑ D1↓ A
#6 #7 #8 #9 #10
Left Thumb Left Index Left Middle Left Ring Left Little
4 2 2 1 1
A W2↓ X3↑ W3↓ T
 OM
M
MIO
#1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Right Thumb Right Index Right Middle Right Ring Right Little
16 16 8 8 4
W4↓ R12 C2↑ D1↓ A
#6 #7 #8 #9 #10
Left Thumb Left Index Left Middle Left Ring Left Little
4 2 2 1 1
A W2↓ X3↑ W3↓ T
MAJOR CLASSIFICATION
It is created by the ridge count or whorl tracing of the thumb patterns, which are
represented by capital letter symbol SML and IMO, or a combination of both.

Major Division of Loop – Rules:

a.The ridge count of the right thumb is represented in the numerator by the symbols
SML, which are arrived at as follows:
1. Ridge Counts of 1-11, inclusive-Small-(S)
2. Ridge Counts of 12-16, inclusive Medium-(M)
3. Ridge Count of 17 or more-Large-(L)
b. The ridge count of the left thumb is represented in the denominator by the same symbols,
SML
c. When there are 17 ridges or more making a “ Large” (L) in the denominator, the
combination changes
in the numerator, thus;
A ridge count of 1-17, inclusive-Small-(S)
A ridge count of 18-22, inclusive-
Medium-(M) A ridge count of 23 or
Major Divisions of Whorls
In a large collection of prints when both thumbs are
whorl, they are divided into nine (9) major divisions by
the result of the ridge tracing, Inner for I, Meeting for M
and Outer for O of both thumbs. The right thumb
represents the numerator, and the left thumb represents
the denominator.

For arches: they are represented by the

symbol dash.
 #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Right Thumb Right Index Right Middle Right Ring Right Little
16 16 8 8 4
W4↓ R12 C2↑ D1↓ A
#6 #7 #8 #9 #10
Left Thumb Left Index Left Middle Left Ring Left Little
4 2 2 1 1
A W2↓ X3↑ W3↓ T
 O
-

#1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Right Thumb Right Index Right Middle Right Ring Right Little
16 16 8 8 4
W4↓ R12 C2↑ D1↓ A
#6 #7 #8 #9 #10
Left Thumb Left Index Left Middle Left Ring Left Little
4 2 2 1 1
A W2↓ X3↑ W3↓ T
KEY CLASSIFICATION
-is the ridge count of the first Loop in a set
of prints beginning with the right thumb, but not
including either of the little fingers.
-If there is no such Loop, the key is the result of
the ridge count of the first Whorl being treated as
an Ulnar Loop.
-When Arches appear in all fingers, the symbol of
the Key Classification is just a dash (-).
-The result of the ridge count of the Key
Classification is exhibited/placed at the extreme
left of the classification formula in line with the
 #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Right Thumb Right Index Right Middle Right Ring Right Little
16 16 8 8 4
W4↓ R12 C2↑ D1↓ A
#6 #7 #8 #9 #10
Left Thumb Left Index Left Middle Left Ring Left Little
4 2 2 1 1
A W2↓ X3↑ W3↓ T
 1
2

#1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Right Thumb Right Index Right Middle Right Ring Right Little
16 16 8 8 4
W4↓ R12 C2↑ D1↓ A
#6 #7 #8 #9 #10
Left Thumb Left Index Left Middle Left Ring Left Little
4 2 2 1 1
A W2↓ X3↑ W3↓ T
FINAL CLASSIFICATION
-is the ridge count of the Loop, the little finger
of the right hand, placed on the Numerator line.
-If there is no Loop in the right little finger, then
the ridge count of the one appearing in the left little
finger is used, in which case it is placed in the
denominator of the classification line.
- If no Loop appears in either little finger, the result
of the
ridge count of the Whorl may be used.
-Where arches appear in both little fingers, the ridge
count of the last loop in either the right or left hand,
exclusive of that used for the Key classification may be
used.
 #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Right Thumb Right Index Right Middle Right Ring Right Little
16 16 8 8 4
W4↓ R12 C2↑ D1↓ A
#6 #7 #8 #9 #10
Left Thumb Left Index Left Middle Left Ring Left Little
4 2 2 1 1
A W2↓ X3↑ W3↓ T
 -

#1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Right Thumb Right Index Right Middle Right Ring Right Little
16 16 8 8 4
W4↓ R12 C2↑ D1↓ A
#6 #7 #8 #9 #10
Left Thumb Left Index Left Middle Left Ring Left Little
4 2 2 1 1
A W2↓ X3↑ W3↓ T
 Sub-
Major Primary Secondary
Key Secondary Final
Divisions Classification Classification
Classificati
on

20 O 10 Ra OMM -

- 25 aWt MIO

#1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Right Thumb Right Index Right Middle Right Ring Right Little
16 16 8 8 4
W4↓ R12 C2↑ D1↓ A
#6 #7 #8 #9 #10
Left Thumb Left Index Left Middle Left Ring Left Little
4 2 2 1 1
A W2↓ X3↑ W3↓ T
OTHER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
Aside from the Henry Fingerprint Classification System, there
are other modifications and variations of said system which
include the following:
1. NCIC System: Used by the National Crime Information Center
amounts to a conversion of a Modified Henry Classification
into a form suitable for computer coding.
2. American or NYSIIS: Used by the New York State
Identification and Intelligence System for filing inked
fingerprints.
3. Vucetich System: Developed by Juan Vucetich and used
in most countries in South America.
4. Battley System: Used to file and retrieve single fingerprints
and was developed by Henry Battley of Scotland Yard.
5. Finder System: A computerized fingerprint reader system
developed by the FBI.
NCIC Fingerprint Classification
The NCIC method of fingerprint classification is utilized in many ways by
the criminal justice system to better establish the identity of an individual.
When a wanted person's fingerprint classification is available, the NCIC
FPC should always be included in the wanted person's record for entry
into the TIME System Warrant/Wanted Persons File.
While not a positive identifier, the NCIC fingerprint classification can be of
assistance in eliminating a person as a suspected wanted person, or a
suspect in a criminal investigation. It is also included on the Crime
Information Bureau Identification Transcript as an additional identifier.
The use of the NCIC FPC in communications is less subject to error in
transmission than the Henry Classification and is convertible to the Henry
Classification for searching fingerprint files.
The NCIC FPC formula is printed in a straight line of 20 alphabetic and
numeric characters, beginning with the right thumb as number 1, and
continuing through number 10 with the left thumb being number 6.
Two characters are to be used for each finger as shown in the following
NCIC Fingerprint
Classification

This is the basic derivation of the

Galton's
elementary classification system
The AFIS classification system is a The FBI National Crime
simple use of codes like AU for plain Information Center way of
and tented arch; WU for whorl
patterns; and LS or RS for loops (left
classifying a given fingerprint
slant or right slant). The classification record essential for storage
code for this given annotated and retrieval processes
fingerprint card is shown in this way:
WURSRSWUWUWULSLSWUWU
Classification of Scarred Patterns,
Amputations or Missing at Birth And
Bandaged
When or Unprinted
an impression Fingers
is so scarred that neither the general type of
pattern nor the ridge tracing or count can be determined with
reasonable accuracy and it so happens that the corresponding finger
of the other hand is similarly scarred, both patterns are given the
arbitrary value of whorls with meeting tracings.
When one or more amputations appear on a fingerprint card, it may
be filed separately from those having no amputations in order to
facilitate searching.
If one finger is amputated, it is given a classification identical with that of the
opposite finger, including pattern and ridge count or tracing and referenced
to every other possible classification.
If two or more fingers are amputated, they are given classifications identical with
the fingers
Classification of Scarred Patterns,
Amputations or Missing at Birth And
Bandaged
When orcard
a fingerprint Unprinted Fingers
bearing a notation of fingers missing at birth is
classified, the missing fingers should be treated as amputations in
that they are given identical classifications of the opposite fingers
and are filed in the amputation group. As these fingers are missing from a
prenatal cause, they would have always received the identical classification
of the opposite finger on any previous occasion.

If all 10 fingers are amputated or missing at birth, the classification will

be:
M 32 W
MMM M 32
W MMM
If both hands are amputated or missing at birth, the footprints should
1.2. Analyze the
principles of
fingerprint
identification,
fingerprint
characteristics and
patterns.
Principles of Fingerprint
Identification
1. Principle of Individuality – that
there are no two person having the
same fingerprints.
2. Principle of
Permanency/Constancy – that
once ridges are fully developed, its
general arrangement remains the
same throughout life.
3. Principle of Infallibility – that
Some Attempts to Destroy Ridges and Disguise
1.John Dillenger – US notorious public
enemy #1, tried to remove his
fingerprints with acid but failed.
Postmortem fingerprints taken after his
death proved that he was Dillenger.
2.Robert James Pitts – gained fame
for having no fingerprints. He contacted a
doctor to have his skin removed up to the
generative layer. Scar tissue developed.
After almost a year, he was picked up by
the police who were amazed to find that
he had no fingerprint. However, the Texas
police were able to identify him out of the
 LEVELS OF
IDENTIFICATION
DECISION
PROCESS
LEVEL 1 (PATTERN)
Level 1 includes the general
ridge flow and pattern
configuration.
Level 1 detail is not
sufficient for
individualization but can be
used for exclusion.
Level 1 detail may include
information enabling
orientation, core and delta
LEVEL 2 (MINUTIAE POINTS)
Level 2 detail includes
formations, defined as a
ridge ending, bifurcation,
dot, or combinations
thereof.
The relationship of
Level 2 detail enables
individualization.
LEVEL 3 (PORES AND RIDGE SHAPE)
Level 3 detail includes
all dimensional
attributes of a ridge,
such as a ridge path
deviation, width,
shape, pores, edge
contour, incipient
ridges, breaks, creases,
scars, and other
RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS (MINUTIAE)
Ridge Characteristics are those little details in
the ridges of fingerprint patterns whichare
in used fingerprints.
identifyin in comparing and
Characteristics are those
g and
ridgeelements that impart individually to
structure a
s single rolled fingerprint may have as many as 100
A
fingerprin
or more identification points that can be used
t.
for identification purposes. These points are often
ridge characteristics. There are many different ridge
characteristics, although some of them are more
common than others. These points can be used as
RIDGEOLOGY
Ridgeology is the study of the uniqueness of
friction ridge structures and their use for
personal identification. (Introduction to Basic
Ridgeology by David Ashbaugh, May 1999)
The term ridgeology refers to forensic science
that is associated with all of the ridges on the volar
areas, not just on the fingertips, as fingerprint
identification implies.
The identification sciences of edgeoscopy
and poroscopy are also a part of ridgeology
as are areas ofdermatoglyphicss.
EDGEOSCOPY
Edgeoscopy is a term applied to the study of the
characteristics formed by the sides or edges of
papillary ridges as a means of identification.
Edgeoscopy is an extension of identification by ridge
characteristics, and these characteristics are generally, but
not always, microscopic in nature.
Combination of two words Edge + Scopy that indicates
edges of ridges of fingerprints and Scopy stands for study.
The study of edges of ridges of fingerprints. These ridges
are present on the friction ridge of skin on the distal end
of digits, palms, and soles in the hands and feet.
It is the method of identification by the examination of
unique details and characteristics found along the
EDGEOSCOPY
Salil Kumar Chatterjee, a great pioneer in the field of fingerprints,
coined a new term “Edgeoscopy” through his papers published in
Fingerprints and Identification in 1962 and republished in the
second edition of his own book “Finger, Palm and Sole Prints” in
1967.
Chatterjee classified the characteristics of the Edges of friction ridge
skin into seven different classes as follows:
1. Straight Edge
2. Convex Edge
3. Peaked Edge
4. Table Edge
5. Pocket Edge
6. Concave Edge
POROSCOPY
Poroscopy is the term applied to a specialized study of pore
structure found on the papillary ridges of the skin
as a means of identification.
Poroscopy was established by Dr. Edmund Locard in 1912.
Papillary skin contains an average of 2700 sweat glands per
square inch of the skin surface. Each gland has an opening
called sweat pore. According to Locard the agreement between
20 to 40 pores is sufficient to establish positive identification.
These sweat pores vary in the following ways:
► Size of pores – small, medium or large.
► Frequency of various pores.
► The shape of an individualpore – rounded, elliptical,
rhomboid, square, rectangle, etc.
► Relative position of pore on the ridge – open type or closed
type.
EDGEOSCOPY AND POROSCOPY
Poroscopy and Edgeoscopy are third-level
methods of fingerprint identification through
examination of the unique details and characteristics
found along the edges of individual fingerprint ridges
(for Edgeoscopy) and individual sweat pore situated on
every epidermal unit which fuse together to form a
ridge.
Characteristics shapes are exhibited on one or both
sides if the friction ridges appear often and they may be
straight edge, convex edge, peak – edge, table edge,
pocket edge, concave edge, angle edge, infinite edge, etc.
RIDGEOLOGY
The uniqueness of a fingerprint can be determined by the
pattern of ridges and valleys as well as the minutiae
points, which are points where the ridge structure changes.
When minutiae on two different prints match, these
are called points of similarity or points of identification. At
this point, there is no international standard for the
number of points of identification required for a match
between two fingerprints. However, the United Kingdom
requires a minimum of sixteen points while Australia
requires twelve.
RIDGEOLOGY
The koala is one of the few mammals (other than
primates) that has fingerprints. In fact, koala fingerprints
are remarkably similar to human fingerprints; even with
an electron microscope, it can be quite difficult to
distinguish between the two.
RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS (MINUTIAE)

► Ridge Dots/Islands/Dots - An
isolated ridge unit whose length
approximates its width in size; a
ridge that resembles a dot,
fragment or a period.
► Opposed
Bifurcation
► Trifurcations - The point at which
one friction ridge divides into
three friction ridges
RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS (MINUTIAE)

► Ending Ridge - A single friction ridge that

terminates within the friction ridge structure; an
end point of ridge, or a ridge with abrupt ending.

► Ridge Crossing - A point where two ridge units

intersect

► Enclosures/Lakes/Eyelet - A single friction ridge

that bifurcates and rejoins after a short course and
continues as a single friction ridge; a ridge that
divides into two branches and meets to form the
original ridge.
RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS (MINUTIAE)

► Short Ridges (Islands) - Friction ridges of varying

lengths.

► Spurs (Hooks) - A bifurcation with one short ridge

branching off a longer ridge

► Bridges - A connecting friction ridge between parallel

running ridges, generally right angles.

► Converging Ridges - A ridge formation

characterized by a closed angular end and serves as
a point of convergence (meeting of two ridges
previously running side by side).
RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS (MINUTIAE)
► Diverging Ridges - Two ridges flowing side side
by and
separating or spreading apart.
► Appendage - A short ridge found at the top or at the
summit of a recurving ridge.

► Type Lines - Basic boundaries of fingerprint

patterns; two innermost ridges that is running parallel
or nearly parallel with each other which diverge at a
certain point tending to surround the pattern area.

► Pattern Area - Part of a fingerprint that lies within

the area surrounded by the type lines. It is where the
core, delta and other ridge characteristics used for
classification can be found. (See Type Lines)
RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS (MINUTIAE)
► Recurving or Looping Ridge - A kind of ridge formation
that curves back in the direction from which it started. It
looks like a hairpin.

► Sufficient Recurve – Are curving ridge complete in its

shoulder and is free from any appendage.

► Rod or Bar - A short or long ridge found inside the innermost

recurving
ridge of a loop pattern.

► Obstruction Ridge - A short ridge found inside the

innermost recurving ridge that spoiled the inner flow
towards the center of the pattern.
 Incipient Ridges are an
unusual type of ridges found
in a small percentage of
RIDGE patterns. They are found in
CHARACTERIST the furrows between two and
ICS (MINUTIAE) full-bodied ridges. They are
short, narrow and badly
formed; their diameter is
never equal to the diameter
of an average ridge and their
course is practically always
RIDGE DESTRUCTION
SCARS and RUSHES or BREAKS destruct ridge formation.
WARTS always show very plainly on a print, it will either
leave a black ring around a white circle or a black spot.

CREASES, are the white lines that are found on a fingerprint

that look like scars; they are not permanent and will not show
any turning or puckering of the ridges.

OCCUPATIONAL DAMAGES show up in the form of small

white splotches; unless they are very numerous, they have no
effect at all on classification but if numerous enough to
prevent classification; effort should be made to obtain prints
after the subject has ceased such work for a while.
RIDGE DESTRUCTION

KERATOSIS, is one condition in which

there are no fingerprint ridges, or at
least very few. Degeneration of the ridges
in advanced stages of leprosy is also found.

PSORIASIS, named from the Greek word

for “itch”, psoriasis is a persistent skin
condition. The skin becomes inflamed,
producing red, thickened areas with silvery
scales, most often found on the scalp,
elbows, knees, lower back and without
exemption-on fingerprints.
RIDGE DESTRUCTION
FRAGMENTING, the center of the
print is fragmenting.

SCAR TISSUE, a Scar on the finger

interferes with print ridges, but creates a
new unique print.

AGING, when a person gets older the

friction ridges are getting less visible.
 FINGERPRINT
IDENTIFICATION
Fingerprint Identification, or Dactyloscopy, or
Handprint Identification, is the process of
comparing two instances of friction ridge skin
impressions, from human fingers, the palm of the hand
or even toes, to determine whether these impressions
could have come from the same individual. The
flexibility of friction ridge skin means that no two
fingers or palm prints are ever exactly alike in every
detail; even two impressions recorded immediately
after each other from the same hand.
Fingerprint Identification, also referred to as
Individualization, involves an expert, determining
whether two friction ridge impressions are likely to
have originated from the same finger or palm (or toe or
sole).
TYPES OF FINGERPRINTS
PATENT PRINTS
- are VISIBLE PRINTS that occur
when a foreign substance on the
skin of a finger comes in contact
with the smooth surface of another
object. These prints leave a distinct
ridge impression that is visible with
the naked eye without technological
enhancement of any kind. The tried
and true "blood on his hands"
evidence is an example of patent
prints recovered from a crime scene
or scene of interest to investigators.
These foreign substances contain
dust particles which adhere to the
ridges of the fingers and are easily
TYPES OF FINGERPRINTS
PLASTIC PRINTS
- are visible, IMPRESSED PRINTS that
occur when a finger touches a soft,
malleable surface resulting in an
indentation. Some surfaces that
may contain this type of fingerprint
are those that are freshly painted or
coated, or those that contain wax,
gum, blood or any other substance
that will soften when handheld and
then retain the finger ridge
impressions. These prints require no
enhancement in order to be viewed,
because they are impressed onto an
object and are easily observable.
TYPES OF FINGERPRINTS
LATENT PRINTS
- are fingerprint impressions secreted in a
surface or an object and are usually
invisible to the naked eye. These prints
are the result of perspiration which is
derived from sweat pores found in the
ridges of fingers. When fingers touch
other body parts, moisture, oil and grease
adhere to the ridges so that when the
fingers touch an object, such as a lamp, a
film of these substances may be
transferred to that object.
The impression left on the object leaves a
distinct outline of the ridges of that finger.
These fingerprints must be enhanced upon
collection and, because they serve as a
means of identifying the source of the
print, they have proven to be extremely
TYPES OF FINGERPRINTS
EXEMPLAR PRINTS or KNOWN PRINTS
- is the name given to fingerprints
deliberately collected from a subject
whether for purposes of enrolment
in a system or when under arrest for
a suspected criminal offense. During
criminal arrest, a set of exemplar
prints will normally include one print
taken from each finger that has
been rolled from one edge of the
nail to the other, plain impressions
of each of the four fingers of each
hand and plain impressions of each
thumb; they can be collected using
FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION
In 1858, Sir William J. Hershel, an English Administrator in
Calcutta, India, in an attempt to halt the rampant forgery
in governmental dealings, obtained a print on Mr. Rajyadhar
Konai, a local contractor. The fingerprinting worked out so well
that Hershel continued the practice and, after a decade, had
accumulated a file of fingerprints.
As the practice of fingerprinting acquired more credence,
the files of fingerprints collected by Hershel, Dr. Henry Faulds
(who took fingerprints of Japanese hospital patients), and others
proved too unwieldy.
Sir Francis Galton, an English anthropologist, established
the first classification of fingerprints in 1888, so that retrieval
could be possible in a reasonable period. He established the
classification of fingerprints on the patterns of the fingerprints
independent of an individual's personal information. The
grouping of patterns into arches, loops and whorls was
FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION
By taking the classification patterns of Galton and
adding a fourth one, composites, the fingerprints
could be filed in bins according to groupings for easy
retrieval, thus eliminating the necessity of matching
the fingerprints against those in the entire database.
The Henry System of Fingerprint Classification was put
into use by the Government of India, and it proved so
successful as a means of establishing criminal
identification records that Scotland Yard adopted the
methodology in 1901. Henry was appointed Chief
Commissioner of the London Police Department,
and the Henry Classification of Fingerprinting was
accepted as common practice throughout England
and its territorial holdings and in the United States.
FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION
Within the same decade as Sir Henry's advances in the
use of fingerprinting in the tracking and identification of
criminals, similar programs were launched in South
America by Juan Vucetich, an Argentine Police Official, and
Henry Roscher, a disciple of Dr. Henry Faulds in Germany.
Vucetich, Roscher and Henry all developed systems of
fingerprint classification based on the different shapes and
patterns in the ridges of fingers, as well as on the finger
positions of these pattern types and by the number of ridges in
each finger configuration.
Henry's Classification of Fingerprinting system was adopted
by the English speaking countries, while Vucetich's system
was utilized in the Spanish speaking countries. Roscher's
system was used in his homeland of Germany, and also in
FINGERPRINT PATTERNS
In 1888, a British anthropologist by the name of Francis
Galton established the first classification of
fingerprints in order to hasten the retrieval process.
In 1896, an English Police Official stationed in
India, Sir Edward Richard Henry, revised the
Galtonian system and devised a classification system
based on the different patterns in the fingerprints of
various individuals.
The system was mainly intended for use in the
identification and tracking of criminals, and its
groupings are still the foundation of the fingerprint
classification and storage that is employed today.
FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

The most popular ten-print classification systems

known include:
1. Henry Roscher System was developed in
Germany and implemented in both Germany
and Japan.
2. Juan Vucetich System was developed in
Argentina and implemented throughout South
America.
3. Edward Richard Henry System also
Henry Classification System was developed
HENRY‘S FOUR TYPES OF PATTERN
GROUPINGS
Henry's system is based on four distinct
groups of patterns, with each group possessing
the same basic characteristics and
resemblances. Within each major group there
exist sub-groups containing similar
differences among patterns in that particular
group. Henry‘s four types of pattern groupings
(arch, loop, whorl, composite) and their
interpretations are as follows:
1. ARCH 2. LOOP
- ridges make a backward turn but do not
- ridges of the finger twist. This backward turn, or loop, is
differentiated by how the loop flows on
run continuously from one side the hand and not how it flows on the card
of the finger to the other with on which the imprint is taken. The imprint
no recurving. on the fingerprint card is similar to the
reverse image we see when we look in
a. Plain Arch---this pattern the mirror at ourselves.
has a consistency of flow to a. Radial Loop - these are loops
it. It starts on one side of that flow toward the radius bone of
the hand or, in other words, when
the finger, and then the the downward slope of the loop is
ridge cascades upward from the direction of the little finger
slightly, almost toward the thumb of the hand.
resembling a wave out on b. Ulnar Loop - these are loops
that flow toward the ulna bone of
the ocean. the hand or, in other words, when
b. Tented Arch---this the downward slope of the loop is
from the direction of the thumb
pattern is similar to the toward the little finger of the hand.
plain arch in that it starts on
3. WHORLS 4. COMPOSITES
- there are patterns in which there - there are patternsfound in
or
are more
two deltas (first ridge nearest which are combinations of
fingerprints arch,
divergence
the point of two type lines) and there
exists a recurve preceding each loop and
delta.
a. Central Pocket Loop - these
whorl.
a. Plain Whorl - in these whorls, recurve a second time forming a
ridges make a turn of one loops
within the
the circuit and, therefore, are circular pocket
complete
spiral
or in b. loop.
Twinned Loop - also referred to
Central Pocket - in these whorls, as the Double Loop, these loops
b. shape.
of two separate loop
oneor more of the simplerecurves of
plain
consist
the whorl recurves a second c. formations.
Lateral Pockets Loop - these
c. time.
Double Loop - in these whorls, are similar to the Twinned
loops
are two separate loop formations.In
there except
Loop that their ridges bend
each of these formations, there are down on one side before
sharply
entirely
two separate and distinct sets actually forming a
shoulders and recurving,
of d. pocket.
Accidental Loop -
deltas.
d. Accidental Whorl - in combinationloops
of any twoa types
the composition
thesetwo distinct of the pattern is
whorls,types of patterns these
pattern are
with the exception on the
from
derived of
arch that basically has no
at least two
with plain
deltas. pattern.
 FINGERPRINT
PATTERNS AND
THEIR
INTERPRETA
TION
With Henry's system now based and regrouped on four (4)
distinct groups of patterns – arch, loop, whorl,
composite; each group possesses the same basic
characteristics and resemblances of which within each
major group there exist sub-groups containing similar
differences among patterns in that particular group.
It must also be noted that originally, there are three (3)
basic fingerprint patterns – loop, whorl and
arch which constitutes 60-65%, 30-35% and 5% of
all fingerprints. That, there are more complex
classification systems that break down patterns even
further: into plain or tented arches; into radial or ulnar
loops depending on the side of the hand toward which the
tail points; and, whorls having sub-group classification
ARCH
a.Plain Arch (A) ---this pattern has a consistency of
flow to it. It starts on one side of the finger, and then
the ridge cascades upward slightly, almost resembling a
wave out on the ocean. The plain arch then continues its
journey along the finger to the other side. The plain arch
is the simplest of the fingerprint patterns to discern.
The plain arch pattern is made up of ridges lying one
above the
other in a general arching formation. No core and no delta.

b.Tented Arch (T) ---this pattern is similar to the

plain arch in that it starts on one side of the finger and
flows out in a similar pattern to the other side. However,
the difference in the tented arch lies in the ridges in the
center, which are not continuous as in the case of the
plain arch. The ridges, which adjoin each other in the
center, converge and thrust upward, giving the impression
of a pitched tent.
LOOP
In loops, the ridges make a backward turn but do not twist. This backward turn, or
loop, is differentiated by how the loop flows on the hand and not how it flows on the
card on which the imprint is taken. The imprint on the fingerprint card is similar to
the reverse image we see when we look in the mirror at ourselves. There are two
divisions of a loop based on the fact that every human being has in their forearm
two large bones extending from the elbow to the wrist:
One is the radius bone or the inner bone that runs to the wrist on the side where
the thumb is located; loop opening toward thumb (as the radius is the lateral
bone).
The other one is ulna bone, also running to the wrist located on the little finger;
loop opening
toward little finger (as the ulna is the medial bone).
Requisite of a Loop Pattern: 1. It must have a delta; 2. It must have a core; 3. It
must have a recurving ridge that passes between the delta and the core; 4. It must
have a ridge count of at least one.
To differentiate a radial from an ulnar loop in the plain impression, it is important to
know from what hands it is taken. If the ridges flow in from the little finger side this
would be an 'ulnar' loop. If the ridges flow in from the thumb side this would be
LOOP
a. Radial Loop (R) ---these are
that
loops flow toward the radiusbone of
hand
the or, in other words, when
downward
the slope of the
directionof
loop is the from
little finger
the toward
thumb of the
the
hand.
b. Ulnar Loop (U) ---these are
that
loopsflow toward the ulna bone of
hand
the or, in other words, when
downward
the slope of the
directionof
loop isthe thumb
from toward the
the
finger
little of the
hand.
WHOR
L
In whorls, there arepatterns in which there
are two or more deltas (first ridge nearest
the divergence point of two type lines) and
there exists a recurve preceding each delta.
When the line of the fingerprint disc is
placed on the two points of delta, it will
bisect at least one of the ridges belonging
to the core group.
All whorls must have type lines and at
least two deltas. There are four sub-
groups of whorls:
WHORL
a. Plain Whorl (W) --- in these whorls, the ridges
turn
make ofaone complete circuit and, therefore, are
spiral
circularin or
shape. The plain whorl is the simplest form
and
of the most common. There are at least two
whorl
ridge whose
deltas and a circuit may be spiral, oval or circular in
shape.
Elements of Plain Whorl: 1. A complete circuit; 2. Two
3. At least one circuiting ridge is touched or
deltas;
imaginary
crossed byline
an traversing between two
deltas.
b. Central Pocket Loop Whorl (C) --- in these
or moreone
whorls, of the simple recurves of the plain whorl
second
recurves a
time.
Elements of Central Pocket Loop Whorl: 1. At
recurving
least one ridge or obstruction at right angle; 2. Two
deltas;No3.recurving ridges within the pattern area is
crossed by an or
touched imaginary line traversing between
two deltas.
WHORL
c. Double Loop Whorl (D) --- in these whorls, there
are two separate loop formations. In each of these
formations, there are two entirely separate and distinct
sets of shoulders and deltas.
Elements of Double Loop Whorl: 1. Two separate
loop formations; 2. Two deltas; 3. Two separate and
distinct sets of shoulders.
Types of Double Loop Whorl: 1. The “S” type core; 2.
Interlocking type core; 3. The formation of a loop inside
another loop.
i. Lateral Pocket Loop---these loops are similar to the
Twinned Loop except that their ridges bend sharply
down on one side before recurving, actually
forming a pocket. The F.B.I. finds it too difficult to
locate these two loops and classifies both kinds as
WHORL
d.Accidental Whorl (X) --- in these
whorls, the composition of the pattern is derived
from two distinct types of patterns with at least
two deltas. Whorls that contain ridges matching
the characteristics of a particular whorl sub-
grouping are classified as accidental whorls.

Elements of Accidental Whorl

1.Combination of two different types of pattern
with the exception of the plain arch.
2. Two or more deltas.
 DELTAS AND
CORE
TheFocal
(Terminus Points
of Fingerprint
Classification)
DELTA
A point on the first ridge formation located directly
front
at, or of
in and nearest the center of the divergence of
lines
the type
.Delta – a Greek word meaning, “a deposit of earth
mouth
at the of a river”
Six (6) Delta
1. A bifurcating ridge
Formations
2. A dot
3. An ending ridge
4. A short ridge
5. A converging ridge
6. A point on a long
Rules Governing the Choice between Two or
More Possible Deltas
a. A bifurcation may not be selected as a
does
delta not
if it open towards the core. A bifurcation
be the first ridge formation in front of the
should
of the type lines and it must open towards the
divergence
area
pattern
.
b. When there is a choice between two or
possible
more deltas, the one nearest to the core
selecte
shall be
d.
c. When there is a choice between two or
more
possible deltas, one of which is a
bifurcation, the bifurcation should be
Rules Governing the Choice between Two or
More Possible Deltas
d. The delta may not be located on the middle of the ridge
running
between the type lines towards the core, but at the end of that
ridge.

e.When a pattern shows a series of bifurcation opening

towards the core at the point of divergence of the type lines, the
bifurcation nearest the core is chosen as the delta.

f.In a ridge near the center of the type lines having several
bifurcating ridge opening towards the core, the delta is located at
the point of the first bifurcation just in front of the divergence of
the type lines.

When can a bifurcation be considered a type line? The two legs

CORE

In a loop, a pattern is formed in a variety of

ways but is always found on or within the
innermost looping or recurving ridge.
Rules Governing the Selection of Core
a. The core on the shoulder of the
ridge further from the
recurving
delta.
When an innermost recurving ridge
rod or anaending ridge rising as high
contains
shoulders
as the of the loop, the core is placed
summit
on the of the
rod.
b. When the innermost recurving ridge
an uneven number of rods rising as high
contains
shoulder
as the line or even higher, the core is
upon
placedthe end of the center ridge
whether it touches the innermost
recurve or not.
Rules Governing the Selection of Core
c. When the innermost recurve contains
an even number of ridges which are rising
as high or higher than its shoulder line,
the core is placed upon the end of the
center ridge whether it touches the
innermost recurve or not.

d. When the innermost recurve contains

an even number of ridges which are rising
as high or higher than its shoulder line of
the two central ridges, the core is placed
upon the end of the second ridge which is
 RIDGE
COUNTING
AND RIDGE
TRACING
RIDGE COUNTING
Ridge Counting is the process of counting the ridges that
touched
or crossed an imaginary line drawn between the delta
and core of a loop. A wide space must always intervene
between the delta and the first ridge to be counted.

Rules in Ridge Counting

1. Locate the exact points of the core and delta.
2.Count all ridges which touched or crossed an imaginary
line drawn between the core and the delta. (In actual use of
fingerprint card for classification, the lens is guided by a red
line shown on the disk).
3.Incipient ridges are never counted no matter where they
appear the general rule is that in order to be counted; the
RIDGE COUNTING
Ridges Subject to Ridge Counting
1. A ridge island or a dot gives one ridge
count.
2. A short ridge is given one ridge count.
3. A long ridge is given one ridge count.
4. An abrupt ending ridge is given one ridge
count.
5.A bifurcating ridge is given two ridge
counts when it was crossed in the opening, or
at the center of the bifurcation.
6. Ridge enclosures are counted as two
ridges.
7.Cross-crossing or meeting of two
RIDGE TRACING
Ridge Tracing is the process of counting the ridges intervening
tracing
between the ridge (flows from the left delta to the
delta.This
right processis used
delta) and to determine
the right the three (3)
inner, outer, and of
subdivisions meeting
whorls which
into is represented by capital I,
M, and O.
Rules in Ridge Tracing
1. Look for the left delta and trace the delta towards the front of the right
delta.
original
2. When tracing
the ridge,
ridge andtraced
being continue the tracing
abruptly ends, until
drop it
toreaches
the thejust
next, opposite
right
delta).
side (right
below the
3. When the left delta is a dot, the same thing should be done as in the rule
4. When
letter “b.”the ridge being traced is a bifurcation, always follow the lower
branch until
tracing is completed.
5.Determine whether the tracing ridge flows inside (above), or outside
(below) the right delta.
6.Count the number of intervening ridges (ridge between the tracing
ridge and right delta).
Types of Whorl Tracing
1.Inner Whorl (I) – a whorl pattern
where a tracing ridge runs or goes inside
or above the right delta and there are
three (3) or more intervening ridges.

2.Outside Whorl (O) – a whorl pattern

where a tracing ridge runs or goes below or
outside the right delta and there are three
(3) or more intervening ridges.

3.Meeting Whorl (M) – a whorl pattern

having two (2) of less intervening ridge/s
regardless of whether the tracing ridges
flow below or above the right delta.
1.3. Explain the
taking and recording
of friction skin (live
and post mortem),
latent print detection
methods and latent
print preservation
techniques.
TAKING INKED
FINGERPRINTS
IMPRESSION
Important
Points
1. Cleanliness of the paraphernalia.
2. The right kind and quantity of ink.
3. Proper distribution of ink in the glass slab inking plate.
4. Distance of the subject from the inking plate and the fingerprint card.
5. Advice of the operator to the subject is to relax and never to aid in the
operation.
6. The pressure exerted must be slight and ever and the rolling must be
continuous
movement including the lifting.
7. The nail of the finger should be at a right angle to the glass slab, or to
the card before starting the rolling of the fingers until the other side of
the nails is reached.
8. The inking and printing must always reach below the first joint of the
finger.
9. The thumbs should be rolled towards the subject’s body and all other
fingers away from the subject’s body.
Scientific Way of Taking
Fingerprints
1. Prepare the set up for printing (table, ink, ink slab, roller, fingerprint card, card
holder)
2. Clean the ink slab thoroughly before spreading the ink.
3. Place small amount of ink on each side and the center of the slab then start
spreading using
the roller.
4. Check if the color of the ink is brownish when expose to the light
5. Place the fingerprint card on the card holder properly to ensure proper and easy
printing.
6. Check the hands of the subject if clean and dry. Wipe sweaty hands with soft,
clean and
alcohol-dampened cloth.
7. Technician should stand at the left of the subject in taking the right-hand
impressions and take the right side in taking the left-hand impression.
8. Subject should be instructed to stand straight but relax and not
to assist in rolling his fingers.
9. Thumb should be placed first to be rolled towards the body of the subject.
Index, middle, ring and little fingers should be rolled away from the body of the
subject.
Fingerprint Laboratory
Equipment
1. Ink Roller – an instrument used for spreading the ink into the
slab
2. Ink Slab – a piece of metal or a plane glass with as much as
¼ inch thick and 6 inches or more length where the
fingerprint ink is spread for fingerprinting
3. Card Holder – a gadget used for clipping the fingerprint card
to avoid movement of the card during printing
4. Fingerprint Ink – a especially manufactured ink for purposes
of taking fingerprint. A printer ink is sometimes used as
substitute
5. Magnifying glass – an instrument use for examination of
developed fingerprint; two common types
a. Linen tester – one with 1-inch square opening, fixed focus, pocket-
sized and can be folded.
Fingerprint Laboratory
Equipment
6. Fingerprints Powder - powder use in developing
latent prints found in the scene of the crime.
Normally sets of two, black and gray or white color,
which is applied depending on the contrasting
background.
7. Fingerprint Brushes – instrument use for powdering
latent prints. It may be a fiber glass, or magnetic
or feather type brush.
8. Latent Prints Transfer Cards – use in preserving
lifted latent fingerprints either in black or white
background.
9. Fingerprints Lifting Tapes – use for lifting of
developed latent prints which is quite harder than an
ordinary tapes, with 3 varieties, such as frosted,
rubber and transparent
Fingerprint Laboratory
Equipment
11.Fingerprint cards – an 8” x 8” piece of card
used for recording the ten (10) fingers for
comparison
12.Flashlight – device for searching and
focusing on developed latent prints
13.Roller or Tape Measure – roll type used for
measuring crime scene sketch
14.Pair of Forceps – an instrument for picking up
objects or taking evidence
15.Graph paper – for sketching of latent prints
location, indicating measurements and
exact location of objects
16.Evidence identification tags or tapes – to identify
Fingerprint Laboratory
Equipment
17. Scissors – instrument for cutting latent print tapes
and for other purposes
18. Rubber gloves – protection of the technician’s
finger from leaving his prints on the object or
the scene
19. Post-mortem fingerprint equipment – set of
equipment composed of hypodermis syringe,
spoon, tissue builder solvent, tissue cleaner,
etc., used for taking fingerprints of dead
persons
20. Carrying case – box-like structure or attaché for
carrying necessary equipment at the crime
scene
21. Inkless inking device – portion pad, sensitized
The equipment required for taking fingerprints consists of an inking
plate, a cardholder, printer’s ink (heavy black paste), and a
roller.
An inking plate may be made from a hard, rigid, scratch-resistant metal
plate 6 inches wide by 14 inches long or by inlaying a block of wood with a
piece of glass one-fourth of an inch thick, 6 inches wide, and 14 inches
long. The glass plate by itself would be suitable, but it should be fixed to
a base in order to prevent breakage. The inking surface should be elevated
to a sufficient height to allow the subject’s forearm to assume a horizontal
position when the fingers are being inked.
The fingerprints should be taken on by 8- by 8- inch cardstock, as this
size has generally been adopted by law enforcement because of facility in
filling and desirability of uniformity. The upper 10 prints are taken
individually- thumb, index, middle, ring, and the little fingers of each hand
in the order named. These are called ROLLED IMPRESSIONS; the fingers
being rolled from side to side in order to obtain all available ridge
detail. The smaller impressions at the bottom of the card are taken by
simultaneously printing all of the fingers of each hand and then the thumb
without rolling. These are called PLAIN OR FIXED IMPRESSIONS and are
used as a check upon the sequence and accuracy of the rolled
impressions.
To obtain PLAIN IMPRESSIONS, all the fingers of the right hand should be
Purpose of Plain Impression
1.Serve as a guide as to whether the rolled impressions
are properly placed on its respective boxes
2.Check on the ridge characteristics of the plain impression
when rolled impression is feint or indistinct
3.Check the minute details of the ridge characteristics for
classification and identification

Problems of the Fingerprint Operator

4.When the finger has a fresh cut, wound, or bandage, it
will prevent the recording of the printing.
5. When the hands are perspiring excessively.
6. If the fingers are very dry, like the fingers of a Bricklayer.
7. When the ridges of the fingers are very fine.
8. When one or more fingers are lacking or missing.
Problems in the Taking of Inked
Fingerprints
1. Mechanical Operation - equipment
2. Temporary Disabilities - fresh cuts, or wounds,
bandaged fingers or fingers, occupational
(carpenters, bricklayers, etc.) blisters, and
excessive perspiration
3. Permanent Disabilities - lack of fingers (born
without), amputations, crippled fingers (bent,
broken), deformities (webbed, extra fingers), and
old age. In those cases where all of the fingers
are amputated, the inked footprints should be
obtained.
⮚ Deformities – split thumbs
 SEARCH,
PRESERVATION
AND COLLECTION
OF FINGERPRINT
EVIDENC
E
SEARCH
A systematic search plan should be used for locating
fingerprints at the crime scene, it should begin at the area
surrounding the actual scene; the next logical places to
search are points of possible exit and entry and be
continued on the way following the possible path of the
criminal.

All suspected areas should be checked, any item that has

been moved or displaced should be searched for
fingerprints. A strong, oblique light or flashlight is a great
aid for the investigator in discovering latent prints on
reflective surfaces; the following areas and objects may
be expected to yield latent prints:
SEARCH
1. The pathway traveled by the criminal including doors, windows,
hallways,
staircase handrails, windowsills, walls, and possible points of entry
and exit.
2.Objects or materials touched by the criminal such as light
switches, tables, drawers, safes, mirrors, closets, telephones,
refrigerators, liquor cabinets or counter tops.
3.Weapons or tools used by the criminal such as knives, screw
drivers, credit cards, flashlights or vehicles.
4.Target location of the crime such as wallets or pocketbooks,
cash register, safe, cabinets used to keep records, bonds, jewelries,
guns or other locations where valuables might be kept.
5.Objects or materials destroyed by the criminal such as broken
glass, broken doorknobs, drawer handles or torn letters or notes.
6.Articles or materials left at the scene such as bottles, cans,
PRESERVATION
When a latent print is located, the first thing that must be
done is to photograph it. Various techniques have been
used to bring about maximum contrast and the best
results. With patent or plastic prints, photographing them is
the only thing needed since they do not have to be
developed.

A data card should be prepared: it should contain

the case
number, date, location, name of the officer who
discovered the print and the name of the
photographer. The photographs should then be taken
again with the data card; the objective of this procedure is
to produce a photograph with clear ridge patterns along
with documentation containing the necessary identifying
information. It is likewise a good practice to sketch the
COLLECTION
Once a fingerprint has been visualized or developed and
photographed, other methods of preserving and collecting
it may be attempted. With small objects such as paper or
glass, the entire object can be retained as evidence. The
object should not be handled with bare fingers; it can be
picked up with a gloves or handkerchief although it should
be handled and touched as possible. Avoiding bare fingers
eliminates the possibility of leaving additional prints while
minimizing handling reduces the chance of wiping or
smearing prints that may be present.
COLLECTION
If the print appears on a movable object such as a bottle or
a weapon, it may be advisable to cover the print with
fingerprint tape and then transfer the entire item to the
laboratory. Care must be taken in applying the tape,
however, so as not to destroy the ridge details. All such
evidence should be placed in proper containers, secured,
labeled, and sealed before transporting it to the laboratory.
If a fingerprint appears on an immovable object such as a
wall or countertop, the print can be lifted after it has been
photographed. In applying the lifting tape, the end is
placed a little distance away from the print and the tape
carefully smoothed out over it. Air bubbles should be
avoided by using a gradual but deliberate technique; the
tape is then carefully removed and placed on the backing
COLLECTION
Collecting Patent Prints
Patent prints are collected using a fairly straightforward method:
photography. These prints are photographed in high resolution with a
forensic measurement scale in the image for reference. Investigators can
improve the quality of the images by using low- angle or alternate light
sources and/or certain chemicals or dyes during photography, but this is
usually not necessary.

Collecting Latent Prints

One of the most common methods for discovering and collecting latent
fingerprints is by dusting a smooth or nonporous surface with
fingerprint powder (black granular, aluminum flake, black magnetic,
etc.). If any prints appear, they are photographed as mentioned above and
then lifted from the surface with clear adhesive tape. The lifting tape is then
placed on a latent lift card to preserve the print.
However, fingerprint powders can contaminate the evidence and ruin the
opportunity to perform other techniques that could turn up a hidden print or
Alternate Light Source (ALS):
It is becoming more common place
for investigators to examine any likely
surfaces (doors, doorknobs, windows,
railings, etc.) with an alternate light
source.
These are laser or LED devices that
emit a particular wavelength, or
spectrum, of light.
Some devices have different filters to
provide a variety of spectra that can be
photographed or further processed with
powders or dye stains. For example,
investigators may use a blue light with
Cyanoacrylate:
Investigators often perform
cyanoacrylate (superglue) processing,
or fuming, of a surface before
applying powders or dye stains.
This process, typically performed on
non- porous surfaces, involves
exposing the object to cyanoacrylate
vapors. The vapors (fumes) will
adhere to any prints present on the
object allowing them to be viewed
with oblique ambient light or a
white light source.
Chemical Developers:
Porous surfaces such as paper are
typically processed with chemicals,
including ninhydrin and physical
developer, to reveal latent
fingerprints. These chemicals react with
specific components of latent print
residue, such as amino acids and
inorganic salts.
Ninhydrin causes prints to turn a purple
color, which makes them easily
photographed. DFO (1,2-diazafluoren-9-
one) is another chemical used to
locate latent fingerprints on porous
surfaces; it causes fingerprints to
Other Collection Methods:
In addition to the methods identified above, there are
special techniques for capturing prints from skin,
clothing, and other difficult surfaces. Amido Black, a
non-specific protein stain that reacts with any protein
present, is typically used for developing or enhancing
bloody impressions on human skin. To reveal prints on
clothing, high-tech methods such as vacuum
metal deposition using gold and zinc are showing
promise for the investigator. AccuTrans®, a liquid casting
compound, can be used to lift powdered latent prints
from rough, textured or curved surfaces. AccuTrans® is
basically a very thick liquid that fills in the nooks and
crannies of rough or textured areas where conventional
print lifting tape encounters difficulty.
Other Collection Methods:
Like fingerprint powders, chemical processing can
reduce the investigator’s ability to perform other
techniques that could reveal valuable information.
Therefore, any non-destructive investigations are
performed before the evidence is treated with chemicals.
For example, a ransom or hold-up note will be
examined by a questioned documents expert before
being treated with ninhydrin, since some formulations of
ninhydrin will cause certain inks to run, thus destroying the
writing.
LATENT PRINTS
IN CRIMINAL
INVESTIGATION
LATENT PRINTS
Latent is derived from the Latin word latentem (nominative
latens) which means "lying hid, concealed, secret,
unknown” or “something indistinct” or something hidden”

General Categories of Latent Prints

1.Visible – those that can be easily recognized or are
noticeable even to an amateur technician.
a. Those made by contamination with colored substances such as
blood, paint,
dust dirt, etc.
b.Molded prints are those that are made visible due to contact of
the subject hands and fingers with some soft object that can assume
the patterns of the fingers once compressed by it such as those
molded in soap, clay, etc.
2.Invisible – those prints that are made due to the sweat
present in the fingers and thumb of a person that is
LATENT PRINTS
Miscellaneous Types of Prints
1.Smudge Prints – those that are indistinct due to
sliding motion of the fingers at the time it was impressed.
2.Fragmentary Prints – those prints that shows only a
portion of the pattern or of the friction skin

Search for Latent Prints

Search for possible prints should be made in a more
systematic and intellectual means. There has been no
specific rule governing its search. Procedures always
depend on the nature of the crime scene to be investigated.
It is common that for one to be able to search for latent
print, the point of entry and point of exit is always
considered.
LATENT PRINTS
Developing Latent
Prints
One of the challenging parts of the work of any fingerprint
the field is inthe successful development and lifting of latent
technician
stability
prints. Theof latent prints is highly influenced by three
factors.
Factors Influencing Stability of Latent
Print
1. ClimaticCondition – most cases showed that latent
the are
prints forminof perspiration. Strong temperatures can easily
the liberation
contribute to of sweat, thus making it
develop the if not
difficult impossible to
2. prints.
Subject Factor – people have various degrees of acidity.
Theperspiring
more
will
the subject the more sweat will be left and the
longer it
3. last.
Nature of Surface – glass and other smooth surfaces
print
make easily attracted to other elements, thus there is a
latent
destruction.
possibility of Papers and other absorbent surfaces make
last
latent prints
Methods for Developing Latent Prints
There are three basic types of fingerprints that occur at crime
scenes---
1. Patent/Visible Prints. Are made by fingers stained with colored materials
ink,
suchpaint, grease or dirt; ordinarily, it does not require further treatment to be fully
as blood,
visualized.
2. Plastic/Impressed Print. Is actually an indentation, formed by pressing the
of the fingers
friction ridges unto a soft surface such as wax, putty, tar, soap, butter or clay;
not requiredo
generally, additional development to be visualized.
sometimes
They may be cast;
are however,
usually plastic
photographed as
and well as patent prints
possibl
should be saved if it all
e.
3. Latent/Invisible Prints. Are normally not visible,
required
means for their visualization;
of development occasionally,
is generally theycan
controlling
be the lighting especially
visualized and if they photographed
lie on smooth, reflective
by surfaces. The
behind
residue by the finger which forms the latent print can be oily if the fingers have
left
sources
contacted such
oil as the sebaceous secretion on non-friction ridge skin (forehead or
secretions
nose). The from the pores in friction ridge skin may be the basis of most latents
not
and oily.
these Under
are normal conditions, the secretion from a sweat pore in
contains 98.5%ridge
friction water and
skin 1.5% dissolved
solids.
Various methodsfor the visualization of latent
fingerprints have
been devised; generally, all the
techniques can be classified into
PHYSICAL METHODS.
This depends on the adherence of inert materials to fingerprint residue.
The most common method for developing latent prints is dusting with
fingerprint powder; other techniques such as argon laser, x-ray, and
vacuum coating have been suggested.

Powder Dusting. Fingerprint powders are available in a wide range of

colors including black, white, gray, red, bronze, and aluminum from many
manufacturers. The selection of powder is extremely important for
obtaining good latent prints; the following factors are usually considered
in selecting a fingerprint powder---
1. The color of the powder should be selected to give maximum contrast
with the
background.
2.The powder must adhere to the deposits left by the friction skin ridges
and yet not adhere too readily to the surface on which the latent prints are
located.
3. The powder should have sufficient wetting characteristics and
adhesiveness to keep
PHYSICAL METHODS
Fluorescent Powders are made of special chemicals such
as zinc orthosilicate and anthracene; they can be used for
the development of latent print objects. A source of
ultraviolet (UV) light is required for visualization of the print
treated with this powder; by photographing the fluorescence
pattern of the developed fingerprint under the UV light, the
obscuring effect of the multicolored surface is greatly reduced.
Magna Brush is a designed magnet; the magnet picks up
the finely divided metallic powder. The brush has no bristles,
so only the powder touches the surface containing the
latent print; this characteristic reduces the chance of
destroying or damaging the ridge detail of a print which can
happen with a bristle brush. This method also permits the use
of the same powder over and over again; this conserves the
powder and leaves a cleaner surface. Excellent latent prints
PHYSICAL METHODS
Argon Laser is a source of very intense, highly collimated, monochromatic
light; this means that the light is of a single wavelength and that the
beam is very small and concentrated. When used with the proper kind of
optical system, the laser light can induce fluorescence in various
components of the latent print secretion material such as riboflavin and
pyrodixen. This fluorescent pattern, when documented with suitable
photographic techniques, can be used for the detection of latent prints. This
method is nondestructive, but it requires expensive equipment and
specialized techniques.
Electron Emission Radiography has been used for the detection of latent
prints on various objects and on human skin. The electron emission is
induced by filtered high energy (Hard) x-rays, which are capable of
passing through the film, will strike the object, which has been dusted with
fine lead powder, without having any direct effect on the film. In response
to the x-ray bombardment, the lead powder adhering to the latent print
ridges produces photoelectrons to which the photographic film is highly
sensitive, and an image corresponding to the dusted pattern is thus
formed on the film.
Vacuum Coating Method involves the development of latent prints by
CHEMICAL
The three most common chemical methods are iodine
METHODS.
ninhydrin, and silver nitrate. They rely upon the chemical
fuming,
of the detection reagent with
interaction some components
form
of the
the latent print.that
secretions Most recently,flourescamine,
dansyl chloride, and radioactive sulfur have also been reported
ophthaladehyde,
for the development of latent
as useful
prints.
Iodine Fuming. The iodine-fumingmethod of developing
fingerprints
latent does not result in a
crystals
permanent can yieldchange.
chemical iodine Iodine
vapor upon mild
forms aheating
reversible complex with the
(sublimation), fatty acid and lipid
which
oily type prints.
components of For this reason, some latent print experts
procedure
refer to thisas a physical
method.
When iodine crystalsare warmed, they produce violet fumes,
consist
which of iodine vapor. The fumes are absorbed by the
secretions
latent print to give yellowish brown prints
There
with are good
two ways of applying
ridge iodine fumes to latent prints to
detail.
them
develop
CHEMICAL METHODS.
Ninhydrin. The development of latent prints with ninhydrin is
based on the reaction between triketohydrindene (ninhydrin)
and amino acids, urea, and proteins of the latent secreations.
There are many different ways of preparing ninhydrin
solutions. Generally, a 0.6% solution in acetone (0.6 g
ninhydrin in 100 ml acetone) appears to be effective,
although this may cause running or bleeding of some inks,
particularly ball-point. The solution may be applied to the
suspected surface by spraying brushing or dipping.
Spraying with a fine mist of solution to cover the surface is the
preferred method. Prints usually take about 24 H to develop
after spraying with ninhydrin, though development can be
speeded up with heat, and moisture or humidity also has
an enhancing effect. The ninhydrin method works
extremely well with old prints on paper. Reports are
indicating that latent prints more than 9 years old on
CHEMICAL METHODS.
Silver Nitrate. The visualization of latent prints by silver
nitrate is possible because of the reaction of the chloride
(primarily in the form of sodium chloride) in the latent
secretions with the silver nitrate to form silver chloride.
AgNO3 + NaCl NaNO3 + AgCl

When silver chloride (AgCl) is exposed to light, it decomposes

to form metallic silver and chlorine:
2AgCl 2Ag + Cl2

The areas containing the metallic silver are thus made more
visible.
Ridges of a latent print developed by this method have a
reddish- brown color.
OTHER CHEMICAL
Flourescamine, ophthaladehyde, and dansyl
METHODS
chloride are newer reagents for
the detection of latent prints. They react sensitively with primary amines in
the range
of pictogram to nanogram amounts. Their reaction with amines is
almost
instantaneous, and the products are highly fluorescent. These chemicals are
especially useful for developing latent prints on absorbent multicolored
surfaces.

Nitric Acid Etching has been used for the detection of latent prints on
cartridge case
surfaces. The heat generated when a cartridge is fixed has been found not
to affect
the latent prints on the casing. Consequently, usable prints
can sometimes be
developed by exposing the cartridge casing to the fumes of heated 20%
nitric acid for
a short time. This nitric acid etching method sometimes produces clear
ridge details.
Nickel casing are usually more difficult to obtain clear latent prints from
than are brass
Summary Table On The Methods Of Visualizing Latent Fingerprints
TECHNIQUE PRINCIPLE SURFACES TO WHICH APPLICABLE
Physical Powder Dusting Adherence of inert material to Smooth, nonporous surfaces such as
fingerprint residues metals, glass, plastics, tile and finished
woods
Oblique Lighting Natural residues of fingerprints Smooth and non-reflective surfaces;
and Photography smooth, nonporous or slightly porous
Laser surfaces such as plastic and paper

X-ray Adherence of lead powder to Smooth, nonporous or slightly porous

fingerprint residues surfaces such as human skin
Vacuum Coating Adherence of gold, silver or Smooth surfaces such as plastic,
cadmium to fingerprint residues films, polyethylene and paper
Chemical Iodine Fuming Chemical interaction of iodine with Smooth surfaces such as paper and
fatty human
acids and lipid in residue skin
Ninhydrin Chemical interaction with amino Paper, cardboard
acids, peptides and proteins of
residue
Silver Nitrate Chemical interaction with chloride in Paper
residue
Flourescamine, Chemical interaction with amino Paper, multi-coloured absorbent surfaces
Opthalaldehyde, Dansyl acids in residue
Chloride
Nitric Acid, Hydrofluoric Acid Glass, cartridge cases
IDENTIFICATION
AND
COMPARISON
OF
FINGERPRINTS
The ridge detail of fingerprints, including the ends of ridges, their
separations, and their relationships to one another, constitute the
basis for the comparison of fingerprints. These ridge details and their
relationships are collectively known as MINUTIAE.

In checking for similarity, most experts require 10 to 12 matching points; in

the past, different countries used different standards. In Spain, 10 to
12 points were required; in Switzerland, 12 to 14; in Austria, 12;
England, 16; France, 17; Germany, 8 to 12; and in most Asian
countries, 12. In 1973, the International
Association for Identification, after a three-year study of
the question of minimum
number of points which should be required for matching concluded that no
valid basis
existed for requiring any predetermined minimum
number rule,ofif points
As a general two prints haveto the be
same present
pattern before a
and enough
positive
matchingidentification
point ridge could be made.
characteristics and there are no unexplained
differences, they are considered to match, and a positive identification is
made. In testifying on fingerprint identification, experts sometimes prepare
charts; these visual presentations are very helpful to a jury in understanding
the basis for fingerprint identification.
Identification of Latent Print
1.Demonstrative Method – process of
evaluation and identification covering a number of
points required in court presentation of fingerprint
evidence.
2.Osborn Method – photographing of both latent
and inked prints examined with standard grid of
equally sized squares superimposed on each enlarged
photographs.
3.Seymour Trace Method – latent and inked
prints are copied on tracing paper, and then compared
by super imposing one over the other.
4.Photographic Strip Method – cutting of latent
prints into lateral strips and placed over the inked
print. The identity is demonstrated by removing the
Identification of Latent
5. PolygonMethod– also called “pincushion
Print method”
pinpoint holes are punched in both latent and inked prints
where small
to the ridge characteristics.
corresponding Straight lines are
punched
drawn points. The geometric
connecting the configuration of each print is
for
compared
identity.
6. Overlay Method– placinga transparent overlay over
print
theand marking
latent suitable writing instrument. The same
the inked
overlay is print
over noting corresponding ridge
characteristics.
7. OsterburgGrid Method – grid lines of 1 mm intervals
superimposed
are over the latent and inked prints. Determination
is made
of by the total value of the weighed
identity
given
characteristics found in a
area.
8. Conventional Method – based on the ridge
unit relationshipand
characteristics to one
its
another.
9. Experience and Skill– experience is the
problem-solving
foundation ofability in all professions; in latent print
superior
the home for sharpening
identification it is all essential
Post-Mortem Fingerprint
As long as sufficient friction ridge detail remains, it is possible to identify
individuals. Decomposition and other certain conditions such as burning
ultimately destroy all skin. Friction skin severely damaged by decomposition
or by exposure to water, sun, fire, or explosion must be cleaned and
restored before an attempt can be made to secure fingerprints.

Epidermal Gloves - Hands damaged should be immersed in running

water, or gently washed with soap, 90% alcohol, benzene, or xylene.
Shrunken or shriveled fingers can be restored to normal size by blowing
air into the bulb of each finger with approximately 1 - 1 ½ cc of air
causing the wrinkles to recede as long as the skin is sufficiently intact to
seal the air inside.

Dermal Surface Impressions - If the epidermis is totally absent or

unusable for the purpose of identification, friction ridge design may be
noted on the dermis. Obtaining dermal impressions includes making a cast
of skin and submerging it for a few hours in glacial acetic acid to swell.
Then rinse it in running water. After casting sprinkle graphite over the
Post-Mortem Fingerprint
Macerated (Soaked) Fingers - Partially rotten to the
extent that the end joints have hardened and wrinkled
excessive submersion in water, macerated fingers can be
restored for identification by being softened in a
solution of four (4) parts of concentrated ammonium
hydroxide and one (1) part of glycerin for thirty-six (36) to
forty-eight (48) hours. When desire softness is obtained it
should be washed with warm water then dried by dipping in
acetone.

Mummified Fingers - Dried and shrunken mummified

finger can be restored and the skin made pliable by
soaking it in a 1 3% solution of potassium hydroxide.
When swelled to normal position, it is dried, inked and
fingerprinted the conventional way. The progress of
Fingerprint examination
Fingerprint examination involves
looking at the quality and quantity
of information in order to find
agreement or disagreement
between the unknown print
(from the crime scene) and known
prints on file.
To conduct the examination,
fingerprint examiners use a small
magnifier called a loupe to view
minute details (minutiae) of a
print. A pointer called a ridge
1.4. Apply
the ACE-V
methodolog
y
in
processing
The Fingerprint Analysis Process
Fingerprint examiners use the ACE-V method to
reach a determination on each print.
ACE-V (Analysis, Comparison, Evaluation
and Verification) is a scientific method for the
examination and documentation of latent
fingerprints.

The purpose of the ACE-V method is to give

more structure and objectivity to the
exercise of print comparison, combining the
factors required for a sound scientific practice.
ACE ACE-V
► By Roy Huber originally ► By David Ashbaugh in 1979,
termed the Law of ACE in 1959 added
with the purpose of discovering a modification
verification to the ACEthe name
methodology.
method that would be considered changed
This ACE to from more
what it is
scientific in nature. referred to as, ACE- suggested
commonly that
►
V.David Ashbaugh
► He is credited with defining ACE-V was more of a scientific
this approach as a way to method than ACE because it
compare two things, regardless of retests the hypothesis by
subject matter, and to identify if conducting a verification process
the two items have a correlating for every comparison that is
relationship. conducted.
► As Ashbaugh stated, “verification
► It was an instrument that applied is a form of peer review and is a
the essential components of the part of most sciences…its purpose
scientific method. These essential is to verify the process and
components of the scientific objectivity as opposed to only
method included asking a checking results”. Once verification
question, forming a hypothesis, was formally added to the
Analysis
Analysis involves assessing a print to determine if it
can be used for a comparison.
If the print is not suitable for comparison
because of inadequate quality or quantity of
features, the examination ends, and the print is
reported as not suitable.
If the print is suitable, the analysis indicates the
features to be used in the comparison and their
tolerances (the amount of variation that will be
accepted).
The analysis may also uncover physical features
such as recurves, deltas, creases and scars that help
Comparisons
Comparisons are performed by an analyst who views the
known and suspect prints side-by-side.
The analyst compares minutiae characteristics and
locations to determine if they match. Known prints are
often collected from persons of interest, victims, others
present at the scene or through a search of one or more
fingerprint databases such as the FBI’s Integrated
Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS).
IAFIS is the largest fingerprint database in the world
and, as of June 2012, held more than 72 million print
records from criminals, military personnel, government
employees and other civilian employees.
Evaluatio
n
Evaluation is where the examiner
ultimately decides if the prints are from
the same source (identification or
individualization), different sources
(exclusion),
Inconclusiveorresults
inconclusive.
may be due to poor
quality samples, lack of comparable
areas, or an insufficient number of
corresponding or dissimilar features to
Verification

Verification is when another

independen analyze examiner
tly s,
evaluates the prints compares
to either supportand
or
refute the conclusions of the original
examiner.
The examiner may also verify the
suitability of determinations made in the
analysis phase.
The Fingerprint Analysis Process
There are only four possibleconclusions for the
examiner: The latent print is --
1. identified or individualized
2. not identified or excluded
3. inconclusive
4. verified

If an identification is made, the conclusion must be verified

by peer review of another qualified fingerprint examiner.
This ensures the proper application of the objective
scientific method and confirms the results of the first
 AUTOMATED
FINGERPRINT
IDENTIFICATION
SYSTEM (AFIS)
Automate Fingerpri Identificatio Syste
(AFIS)
d is a nt
biometric solution
n consisting
m of a
computer database of fingerprint records, which
is able to search and compare them to
identify known or unknown fingerprints.
Modern AFIS can search over a billion fingerprint
records in a single second. The current algorithms
are almost 100 percent accurate.
For the purpose of comparison and search, AFIS
contains so-called templates, which are
mathematical representations of stored
fingerprint images. When searching for a
match, these templates, not the actual images,
are compared, resulting in much faster search
Early AFIS Development
In the early 1960s, the FBI in the United States, the
Home Office in the United Kingdom, the Paris Police
in France, and the Japanese National Police
initiated projects to develop automated fingerprint
identification systems.
The thrust of this research was to use emerging
electronic digital computers to assist or replace the
labor-intensive processes of classifying, searching,
and matching ten-print cards used for personal
identification.
FBI AFIS Initiative
By 1963, Special Agent Carl Voelker of the
FBI’s Identification Division realized that the
manual searching of the criminal file would not
remain feasible for much longer. In an attempt to
resolve this problem, he sought the help of
engineers Raymond Moore and Joe Wegstein of
the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST). After describing his problem,
he asked for assistance in automating the FBI’s
fingerprint identification process.
FBI AFIS Initiative
In 1974, Rockwell International, Inc., was awarded a
contract to build five production model automatic
fingerprint reader systems, called the Finder which were
in use by the FBI in 1975 and 1976.
The Minneapolis–St. Paul system in Minnesota was one of
the first automated fingerprint matching systems (after
the FBI’s) to be installed in the United States.
Further, while the United States was developing its AFIS
technology in the 1960s, France, the United Kingdom,
and Japan were also doing research into automatic
fingerprint image processing and matching.
FBI AFIS Initiative
Although computers took up the whole room, they
improved search times significantly. While it took police
examiners a month or more to compare fingerprints for a
match in a paper database, computers were able to compare
them to a database of 100,000 in just 30 minutes. Today,
the same search takes less time than a single blink of an eye.

The FBI ABIS is still running, the bureau calls it IAFIS (the I
stands for Integrated). Sometimes the abbreviations, IAFIS
and AFIS, are used interchangeably because of the longevity
of the FBI IAFIS.

The very first Innovatrics AFIS was deployed in 2009.

Along with fingerprints and palmprints, it now also supports
FBI AFIS Initiative
The database of the AFIS itself can contain images of
fingerprints, sets of fingerprints, palmprints, and/or
footprints along with identifying data of the individual.
These can come from criminal investigations or from
other sources such as biometric civil registers.

The database also contains templates generated from

source images to enable quick searching through the
AFIS for match candidates. With the correct equipment,
the AFIS database can also be accessed by field
computers, helping with the identification of victims of
natural disasters or when disbursing state aid.
AFIS Revolution
1.First AFIS Levy (1987 - 1990) – the primary goal was to give
all police departments within King County a tool to identify
the perpetration of serious crimes by matching fingerprints
retrieved from the crime scene to known prints stored in the
AFIS database.
2.Second AFIS Levy (1991 – 1995) – the focus was on staffing.
The goal was to:
a. Fingerprint of all inmates in the King County jail;
b. Determine the identity of all inmates within seven (7) hours of
booking to ensure that inmates with outstanding warrants would
not be released.
c. Search all ten prints received from the suburban jurisdiction on
the same day;
d. Maintain a thirty (30) day turnover from receipt of crime scene
latent prints to AFIS search and reporting of the same results; and
AFIS Revolution

3.Third AFIS Levy (1996 - 2000) – the personnel was

charged to look into the statistics and identify many
concerns:
a. Need to capture additional prints;
b. Crime scene print – problems encountered by police
officers in taking latent prints at the crime scene.
c. Funding levels; and
d. Access and service for suburban police agencies.
4. Fourth AFIS Levy is being proposed to set
assumptions for assessed valuation, new construction,
 INTEGRATED
AUTOMATED
FINGERPRINT
IDENTIFICATION
SYSTEM (IAFIS)
The Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification
System, more commonly known as IAFIS, is the
world’s largest collection of criminal history
information. Fully operational since July 28, 1999, IAFIS
is maintained by the FBI’s Criminal Justice Information
Services (CJIS) Division in Clarksburg, WV, and
contains fingerprint images for more than 64
million individuals.
The FBI’s CJIS Division system’s architecture
and the identification and investigative services
provided by the division form an integrated system-of-
services (SoS) concept. These identification and
information services enable local, state, federal,
tribal, and international law enforcement communities,
as well as civil organizations, to efficiently access or
exchange critical information 24 hours a day, 365 days
The Integrated Automated Fingerprint
Identification System (or IAFIS) is an electronic
database that contains electronic fingerprint
records from federal, state, and local law
enforcement agencies across the country.
It allows these fingerprint records to be easily
shared. It was created in 1999 and is maintained
by the Criminal Justice Information Services (or
CJIS) Division of the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (or FBI).
The fingerprints recorded in the system may
belong to criminals, suspected terrorists,
aliens, United States military personnel, military
There are three major services that IAFIS offers:
1. Records - IAFIS holds much more than just
fingerprint records. In addition, it holds
photographs of criminals, information about
individuals' criminal history, and
information about employees of the federal
government.
2. Tentative Identification - IAFIS provides
identification of individuals using information such
as body markings, date of birth, name, and
identification numbers. In this category, that
identification is only tentative and not positive.
3. Positive Identification - IAFIS provides
positive identification of individuals using
PRESENTATION
OF EVIDENCES
IN COURT
PROCEEDINGS
Expert Witness
Witness Qualification - All persons who, having organs of
senses, can perceive, and in perceiving can make known
their perception to others.
Neither parties nor other persons interested in the
outcome of the case shall be excluded; nor any person on
account of his opinion on matters of religious belief. (Sec 16
Rule 130 of Criminal Evidence)

General Rule
A witness must confine his testimony to matters within
his actual knowledge. He cannot be asked questions calling
for his opinion, or conclusion upon facts which are for the
Exception to the Opinion Rule:
1. Expert evidence
2.Impression and conclusions of a witness derived from
facts and conditions like, the testimony of a witness as
to the physical, mental, moral, or emotional conditions of
a person.
3.Identity or handwriting of a person when the
witness has knowledge of the person’s handwriting.
4.Opinion of a subscribing witness to a writing
regarding the mental condition of the signer, when the
validity of the writing is in dispute.
5.Opinion of an intimate acquaintance regarding the
mental sanity of a person, the reason for the opinion being
Expert Evidence:
The opinion of a witness regarding a question of science,
art, or trade when he is skilled therein, maybe received in
evidence.

Two things to justify the admission of the testimony of the

expert witness:
1.The subject under examination must be where
the court needs the aid of knowledge or experience
not obtainable from ordinary witness; and
2.Witness called as expert must possess knowledge,
skill and experience needed to inform the court on the
particular case.
Factors Qualifying a Person as an Expert Witness:
1. Training and education;
2. Particular firsthand familiarity or standards on the present
case; and
3.Presentation of the authorities or standards on which his
opinions are based.
Expert Fingerprint Witness:
A person who through experience, training, and education
has a complete knowledge and skills in the science of
fingerprints, and if called upon by the courts to testify can
externalize that knowledge and skills in a forceful, yet
convincing and intelligent manner.
It is imperative that the expert is knowledgeable in all
phases of fingerprint science, history, classification, latent
procedures and scientific publications.
Three Kinds of Fingerprint Technicians:
1. Those who search for and develop latent fingerprints;
2. Those who interpret, classify, and file inked fingerprints; and
3. Those who compare latent and inked prints to establish identity.

Evidence Examination: The ultimate conclusion, which is

possible in any evidence examination, is the appearance of the
expert in a court of law for the purpose of presenting testimony
relative to any phase of the examination. It may result from a
negative to positive examination.

Case Preparation: It is important to preserve an unbroken chain of

evidence custody. To do so, the fingerprint evidence discovered at a
crime scene must be carefully preserved from the time of
discovery till the trial time, and the possession of the evidence
must be properly accounted for. Handling of evidence must be
Preparing Court Exhibits:
1. Prepare enlarged photographs;
2.The fingerprint technician who qualified as an expert will
explain how he reached his conclusion.
3. Exhibit/demonstration

Pre-Trial Conference with Defense Attorney:

If the defense attorney requests a pre-trial conference, the
expert may, if approved by the prosecuting attorney, or judge
hear the case.
When granted, the pre-trial conference must be attended
by the prosecuting attorney or his authorized representative.
An impartial note taker must record the proceedings copy
On Witness Stand
The effectiveness of an expert’s testimony largely depends on
the total impression created by his appearance, demeanor, and
facility of expression. It is not only the weight of his testimony but
also the factors that influence human beings in observing a man on
a witness stand.

Suggestions for an Expert to Gain Favorable Impressions

1. Dress should be conservative and neat;
2.Answers to questions should be given frankly, honestly,
truthfully, without evasion;
3.If an objection is raised to a question, the
witness should refrain from answering and wait till
the judge overruled the objection.
4. Answer given should be responsive to the question;
5. A witness should be calm in answering the questions;
6. Be careful in answering especially when it is answerable by YES or
Courtroom Methodology (Direct Examination)
1. Swearing in;
2. Assuming the witness stand;
3. Courtroom communication; and
4. Response to jury.

Courtroom Methodology (Cross-Examination)

5. Vulnerable areas of Fingerprint testimony;
6. Transcripts of prior testimony;
7. Tactics of Defense Attorney; and
8. Completion of testimony.

The witness should remember that his duty is not to determine the guilt or
innocence of a defendant. His only purpose is to testify to the results of his
expert and scientific examination of items of evidence and to render an
 End
of
slides
…
Thank you for attending
the class.