UNIT – V Reference Model

OSI reference model : A set of layers and protocols is called as network

architecture. Protocol stack is defined as a list of protocols used for a
certain system, one protocol per layer. Each layer has its own task. When
one computer communicates with other computer then it has go through
each layer. Each layer is stacked on each other. The purpose of each layer
is to offer certain services to the higher layers. Layer in one machine will
communicate with the layer in another machine(destination).
Basically protocol is an agreement between the two communicating
machines about how the communication links should be established,
maintained and released. The rules and conventions mentioned in
protocol.
The international Standards Organisation ISO covers all aspects of
network communication in the open systems interconnection(OSI) model.
An OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems
that allows for communication across all types of computer systems.
Layered architecture:
OSI model is a layered server architecture system in which each layer is
defined according to a specific function to perform. All these
seven layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one layer to
another. The Upper Layers: It deals with application issues and mostly
implemented only in software. Middle layer is transport layer and is heart
of layered structure. Lower layers deals with only hardware
Peer to peer process-interfaces between layer:
Each layer provides a protocol to communicate with its peer. When a packet is
transmitted by a layer, a header is added to the data to be sent. The protocol
data unit(PDU) so-formed, is passed via a service access point to
the layer below. This is then sent using the service of the next lower
protocol layer.
Protocols: Basically protocol is an agreement between the two
communicating machines about how the communication links should be
established, maintained and released. The rules and conventions mentioned
in protocol.
Protocol stack is defined as a list of protocols used for a certain system, one
protocol per layer. Each layer has its own task. When one computer
communicates with other computer then it has go through each layer.
Organisation of layers:
The seven layers in the OSI model can be considered to belong to three
subgroups as follows :
1. Subgroup 1 : Physical, data link and network layer ( layer 1,2,3)
2. Subgroup 2 : Session, Presentation and Application (layer 5,6,7)
3. subgroup 3 : Transport layer(Linking of two subgroups 1 & 2)
The first subgroup consists of layer 1,2,3 are important for the physical
aspects of moving data from one computer to the other.
The second subgroup is made up of the upper three layers(5,6,7) are user
support system.
The third subgroup consists of only the fourth layer which links both
subgroups 1 & 2.
Encapsulation layers of the OSI reference model:
Data Encapsulation is the process of adding the headers and footers to
the data is called data encapsulation. The headers and footers(or trailers)
contain the control information in the individual fields. This control
information is used to make the message packet reach the destination.
Thus, the header and footer form the envelop which carries the message
to the desired destination.
Data De-encapsulation is the process of removing headers and footers.
Functions and features of each layer and protocols used:
Physical layer:
The main functions of the physical layer are as follows −
•It defines the physical characteristics and functions of the physical devices
and interfaces so that transmission can occur. It states the number of pins in
each of the devices as well as the purpose of each pin.
•It lays out the transmission medium and type of signal for transmitting the
bits, i.e., electrical pulses, optical pulses or radio signals.
•It defines the procedure of encoding of the bits, for example, how many volts
should represent a 0 bit and 1 bit in case of electrical signals.
•It states the data transmission rate, i.e., number of bits transmitted per
second; and the duration of a bit, i.e., how long a bit stays.
•It defines the topology, i.e., physical layout, of the network devices.
•It also states the direction of transmission, i.e., whether the transmission is in
simplex mode, half-duplex mode or full-duplex mode.
Data link layer :
Data link layer corrects errors which can occur at the physical layer. The layer
allows you to define the protocol to establish and terminates a connection
between two connected network devices.
It is IP address understandable layer, which helps you to define logical
addressing so that any endpoint should be identified.
The layer also helps you implement routing of packets through a network. It
helps you to define the best path, which allows you to take data from the
source to the destination.
The data link layer is subdivided into two types of sublayers:
Media Access Control (MAC) layer- It deals with protocols, flow-control, and
error control
Logical link control layer- It deals with actual control of media
.
1. Framing
Data-link layer takes packets from Network Layer and encapsulates them into Frames.Then, it
sends each frame bit-by-bit on the hardware. At receiver’ end, data link layer picks up signals
from hardware and assembles them into frames.
2. Addressing
Data-link layer provides layer-2 hardware addressing mechanism. Hardware address is assumed
to be unique on the link. It is encoded into hardware at the time of manufacturing.
3. Synchronization
When data frames are sent on the link, both machines must be synchronized in order to
transfer to take place.
4. Error Control
Sometimes signals may have encountered problem in transition and the bits are flipped.These
errors are detected and attempted to recover actual data bits. It also provides error reporting
mechanism to the sender.
5. Flow Control
Stations on same link may have different speed or capacity. Data-link layer ensures flow control
that enables both machine to exchange data on same speed.
6. Multi-Access
When host on the shared link tries to transfer the data, it has a high probability of collision.
Data-link layer provides mechanism such as CSMA/CD to equip capability of accessing a shared
media among multiple Systems.
Network layer :
The main function of the network layer or layer 3 of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model is delivery of data packets from the source to the destination across multiple hops or
links. It also controls the operation of the subnet.
Functions of network layer :
• When data is to be sent, the network layer accepts data from the transport layer above,
divides and encapsulates it into packets and sends it to the data link layer. The reverse
procedure is done during receiving data.
•The network layer is responsible for routing packets from the source host to the destination
host. The routes can be based upon static tables that are rarely changed; or they can be
automatically updated depending upon network conditions.
•Many networks are partitioned into sub-networks or subnets. The network layer controls the
operations of the subnets. Network devices called routers operate in this layer to forward
packets between the subnets or the different networks.
•The lower layers assign the physical address locally. When the data packets are routed to
remote locations, a logical addressing scheme is required to differentiate the source system and
the destination system. This is provided by the network layer.
•This layer also provides mechanisms for congestion control, in situations when too many
packets overload the subnets.
•The network layer tackles issues like transmission delays, transmission time, avoidance of
jitters etc.
Transport layer:.
The transport layer (Layer 4) is responsible for delivery of an entire message from
an application program on the source device to a similar application program on
the destination device.
Functions of Transport Layers:
It delivers a message from a specific process of one computer to a specific
process in another computer. The transport layer adds a port address to the
header of the data packet.
It divides a message into smaller segments such that each segment contains a
sequence number along with the port address. It ensures that the segments arrive
correctly at the receiver’s end and then reassembles them. (segmentation &
numbering)
It provides an error-free point-to-point channel for both connectionless (UDP
protocol) and connection-oriented services (TCP/IP protocol)
It isolates the upper layers, i.e., the user support layers from any changes in
hardware technology in the lower layers, i.e., network support layers.
It identifies errors like damaged packets, lost packets, and duplication of packets,
and provides adequate error-correction techniques.
Session layer:
The session layer (layer 5) is responsible for establishing, managing, synchronizing
and terminating sessions between end-user application processes..
Functions of Session Layer:
It works as a dialog controller. It allows the systems to communicate in either half-
duplex or full-duplex mode of communication.
It is responsible for token management. Through this, it prevents the two users to
simultaneously attempt the same critical operation.
It synchronizes communication. It adds synchronization points or checkpoints in
data streams for long communications. This ensures that data streams up to the
checkpoints are successfully received and acknowledged. In case of any failures,
only the streams after the checkpoints have to be re-transmitted.
Presentation layer :
Presentation layer allows you to define the form in which the data is to
exchange between the two communicating entities. It also helps you to
handles data compression and data encryption.
This layer transforms data into the form which is accepted by the application.
It also formats and encrypts data which should be sent across all the
networks. This layer is also known as a syntax layer.
The function of Presentation Layers:
•Character code translation from ASCII to EBCDIC. (encoding decoding)
•Data compression: Allows to reduce the number of bits that needs to be
transmitted on the network. (compression decompression)
•Data encryption: Helps you to encrypt data for security purposes — for
example, password encryption. (encryption and decryption)
•It provides a user interface and support for services like email and file
transfer.
Application layer:
The functions of the application layer are −
•It facilitates the user to use the services of the network.
•It is used to develop network-based applications.
•It provides user services like user login, naming network devices, formatting
messages, and e-mails, transfer of files etc.
•It is also concerned with error handling and recovery of the message as a whole.
This layer uses a number of protocols, the main among which are as follows −
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol, HTTP − It is the underlying protocol for world wide web. It
defines how hypermedia messages are formatted and transmitted.
File Transfer Protocol, FTP − It is a client-server based protocol for transfer of files
between client and server over the network.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, SMTP − It lays down the rules and semantics for sending
and receiving electronic mails (e-mails).
Domain Name System, DNS − It is a naming system for devices in networks. It provides
services for translating domain names to IP addresses.
TELNET − It provides bi-directional text-oriented services for remote login to the hosts
over the network.
Simple Network Management Protocol, SNMP − It is for managing, monitoring the
network and for organizing information about the networked devices.