Intelligence

Chapter 8
Theories of Intelligence
Intelligence is the ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire
knowledge and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or
solving problems.
There are differing opinions of the specific knowledge and abilities that
make up the concept of intelligence:

1) Spearman’s G Factor: Charles Spearman saw intelligence as two

different abilities…the ability to be able to reason and solve
problems. He labeled these abilities the “G Factor” (general
intelligence). Whereas task-specific abilities in certain areas such
as music, business, or art are labeled “S Factor” for (specific
intelligence). A traditional IQ test would most likely measure “G
factor”, but Spearman believed that superiority or “S Factor” in one type
of intelligence predicts superiority overall.
Cont.
Howard Gardner later proposed the existence of several kinds of
intelligence. Gardner believed that reason, logic and knowledge are
different aspects of intelligence along with several other abilities. He
originally listed seven different kinds of intelligence, which later
expanded to nine. This idea of multiple intelligences had a great appeal,
especially with educators.

Gardner’s Nine Intelligences not only list the type and a

description of each intelligence, but also offers career options
that would best suited each for of intelligence.

For instance, verbal/linguistics is listed as an intelligence which means a

person excels in their ability to use language and two of the
recommended careers would be writers and public speaking.
Theories of Intelligence Cont.

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: Theorist Robert Sternberg

theorized that there are three types of intelligence called the Triarchic
Theory of Intelligence which includes analytical, creative and practical
intelligence.

1) Analytical intelligence refers to the ability to break problems down into

component parts and analyze them for problem solving. This type of
intelligence is measured by intelligence tests and academic achievement tests
and more often is referred to as “book smarts”.

2) Creative intelligence is the ability to deal with new and different concepts
and come up with innovative ways of solving problems. Often referred to as
“divergent thinking”.

3) Practical intelligence is best described as “street smarts”, or the ability

Measuring Intelligence

The measurement of intelligence by some kind of test is a concept that

is less than a century old. It began when educators in France realized
that some students needed more help with learning than others. The
thought was if they could identify the needs of each student, they could
diversify education for all students.

Alfred Binet: A French Psychologist, was asked by the French Ministry

of Education to design a formal test of intelligence that would help
identify children who are unable to learn as quickly or as well as others,
so accommodations could be made for their education process.
Binet and colleague, Theodore Simon, came up with a test that not only
distinguished between fast and slower learners, but also between
children of different age groups. This ultimately became what we
recognize today as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test.
Cont.
The Stanford-Binet IQ test became known as such when Stanford
researcher Lewis Terman adopted German psychologist William Stern’s
method for comparing mental age and chronological age for use with the
Binet test.

Stern’s formula was to divide the mental age (MA) by the chronological
age (CA) and multiply the result by 100 to get rid of any decimal points.
The resulting score was called an intelligence quotient or IQ.

***The quotient has the advantage of allowing testers to compare the

intelligence levels of people from different age groups.***
Stanford-Binet 5th Edition

IQ Range ("deviation IQ") IQ Classification

145–160 Very gifted or highly advanced
130–144 Gifted or very advanced
120–129 Superior
110–119 High average
90–109 Average
80–89 Low average
70–79 Borderline impaired or delayed
55–69 Mildly impaired or delayed
40–54 Moderately impaired or delayed
Measuring Intelligence Cont.
Wechsler Tests: Another popular intelligence test that is still used
today was developed by David Wechsler. He was the first to devise a
series of test designed for specific age groups. He developed the
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test Scale (WAIS-IV), Wechsler
Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV) and the Wechsler
Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-IV). These
test are used more frequently in the US than the Stanford-Binet.

In previous editions, another way these tests differed from the Stanford-
Binet was by having both a verbal and performance (nonverbal)
scale, as well as providing an overall score of intelligence. While
still using verbal and non-verbal items, the WISC-IV and the WAIS-IV
organize items into four index scales that provide the overall score of
intelligence and index scores related to four specific cognitive
domains- verbal comprehension, reasoning, working memory
and processing speed.
Current Wechsler IQ classification

IQ Range ("deviation IQ") IQ Classification

130 and above Very Superior
120–129 Superior
110–119 High Average
90–109 Average
80–89 Low Average
70–79 Borderline
69 and below Extremely Low
The construction of a good or bad test:
1) The test has to be Reliable: This refers to the ability of the test to
provide consistent results each time the test is administered to the
same individual or group of people.
2) The test has to be Valid: Validity is the degree to which a test
actually measures what it is supposed to measure.

Standardization of a test refers to the process of giving the test to a

large group of people which represents the kind of people for whom the
test was designed. All subjects must take the test under the same
conditions, the standardization groups are chosen randomly from the
population for whom the test is intended and it must be representative
of that population. (IE: ACT, SAT, GRE, GMAT, etc.)

Norms are the scores from the standardized group against which all
others who take the test would be compared. (IE: College acceptance
IQ Test and Cultural Bias

The problem with trying to measure intelligence with a test that is based
on an understanding of the world and its resources is that not everyone
comes from the same environment or “world”. People raised in different
cultures, or even a different economic situation, from the one in which
the designer of an IQ test is raised are not likely to perform well on such
tests, not to mention the difficulty of taking a test written in an
unfamiliar language or dialect.

It is very difficult to design an intelligence test which is totally free of

cultural bias (a term referring to the tendency of IQ tests to reflect, in
language, dialect and content, the culture of the person(s) who designed
the test).

*In the early days of immigration people were denied entry into the US
because they scored so poorly on IQ tests.*
Cont.
IQ test are created by people who are from a particular culture and
background. Test questions and answers that the creators might think are
common knowledge may relate to their own experiences and not to people
of other cultures, backgrounds and/or socioeconomic levels.
Usefulness of IQ tests:
1) IQ test are generally valid predictors of academic success and job
performance. This may be more true for those that score at the higher
and lower ends of the normal curve.

2) The kinds of tests that students are given in school are often similar to
intelligence tests, so people who do well on IQ tests typically do well on
other kinds of academically oriented tests as well as the SAT, ACT, GRE,
GMAT and actual college examinations.

3) Trained psychologist use IQ test and other forms of cognitive and

behavioral testing to assess neurobehavioral disorders in which cognition
has been impaired as the result of brain injury or malfunction (i.e.: head
Extremes Of Intelligence
Another use of IQ tests is to help identify people who differ from those of
average intelligence by a great degree. On end of the spectrum is a
group composed of those who are sometimes called “Geniuses” (scoring
on the extreme high end of the normal curve for intelligence) and at the
other end of the spectrum, for various reasons, are considered
“Intellectually Disabled” (scoring well below the mean on the normal
curve).
Intellectual disability:
A) The person exhibits deficits in mental abilities, which is typically
associated with an IQ score approximately two standard deviations
below the mean on the normal curve, such as below 70 on a test with a
mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15.
B) The person’s adaptive behavior (skills that allow people to live
independently, such as being able to get dressed, eat, and bathe with
little or no help) is severely below a level appropriate for the person’s
age. These limitations must begin in the developmental period.
Intellectual disability occurs in about 1% of the population.
Cont.
Intellectual disability is based on deficits in intellectual functioning, determined
by standardized tests of intelligence and clinical assessment, which impact
adaptive functioning across three domains.
1) Conceptual (memory, reasoning, language, reading, writing, math and other
academic skills)
2) Social (empathy, social judgement, interpersonal communication, and other
skills that impact the ability to make and maintain friendships)
3) Practical (self-management skills that affect personal care, job
responsibilities, school, money management, and other areas)
*Intellectual disability can vary from mild to profound*
Some Causes: 1) lead poisoning from eating paint chips 2) prenatal
exposure to mercury 3) exposure to PCB’s (polychlorinated biphenyls)
which are industrial products or chemicals, as well as other toxins. 4)
Biological causes of intellectual disability include Down Syndrome 5)
fetal alcohol syndrome 6) fragile X syndrome (a defect in a gene on the
X chromosome of the 23rd pair, leading to a deficiency in a protein
needed for brain development) 7) lack of oxygen at birth 8) damage to
the fetus in the womb from disease 9) infections or drug use by the
mother 10) diseases/accidents during childhood. All can lead to
Cont.
Giftedness
At the other end of the intelligence scale are those who fall on the upper end of
the normal curve, above an IQ of 130 (about 2% of the population). The term
applied to these individuals is “Gifted”, and if their IQ falls above 140 to 145,
(less than 1% of the population), they are often referred to as highly advanced or
“Geniuses”.
*People have often assumed that individuals of higher intelligence are weird and
socially awkward, physically weak and more likely to suffer from mental illness.*
However Lewis Terman conducted a study with 1,528 children (857 boys, 671
girls) that scored between a 130-200 on IQ test. His findings were that the gifted
were socially well adjusted and often skilled leaders. That they were above
average height, weight and physical attractiveness. He was also able to establish
they were not more susceptible to mental illness than the general population, but
he was also able to show that they were actually more resistant to mental illness
than those of average intelligence.
Only those with the highest IQ’s (180+) were found to have some social and
behavioral adjustment issues as children. These children were called “Terman’s
Termites” and grew up to be successful adults. They earned more academic
degrees and had higher occupational/financial success than their average peers.
Emotional Intelligence: is the accurate awareness of and ability to
manage one’s own emotions to facilitate thinking, attain specific goals
and the ability to understand what others feel.
It is one explanation for why some people who do poorly in school
succeed in life and why some who do well in school, don’t do so well in
the real world.

This concept was first introduced by Peter Salovey and John

Mayer (1990) and later popularized by Dan Goleman. It states that
one who is emotionally intelligent 1) possesses self-control of emotions
such as anger, impulsiveness and anxiety. 2) Empathy (the ability to
understand what others feel) 3) awareness of one’s own emotions 4)
sensitivity 5) persistence even in the face of frustrations and 5) the
ability to motivate oneself.
Language
Language is a system for combining symbols (words) so that an
infinite number of meaningful statements can be made for the
purpose of communicating with others. (It allows us to
communicate and represent our own internal mental activity.)

The structures of language across the world share common

characteristics:

1) They consist of sounds that exist within a language, word

meanings, word order, the rules for making words into words.

2) The meanings of sentences and phrases

3) The rules for practical communication with others.

Grammar: is the system of rules governing the structure and use
of a language.

Famed linguist, Noam Chomsky, stated that humans have an ability to

understand and produce language through a device called the
Language Acquisition Device or LAD.

He defined the LAD as an innate program that contained a schema for

human language. LAD listens to the language input of the infant’s world,
begins to produce language sounds and eventually words into sentences
in a pattern found across cultures.
Phonemes: Are the basic units of sound in a language. How we
pronounce each single letter as well as combined letters such as th, sh
and au. Different languages have different phonemes, however infants
are born with the ability to recognize all phonemes. After about 9
months that ability begins to deteriorated and infants only recognize
the phonemes of the language to which they are exposed.

Morphemes: are the smallest units of meaning within a language. (i.e.:

playing consists of two morphemes, play and ing.

Syntax: is a system of rules for combining words and phrases to form

grammatically correct sentences. A simple mix-up can give a sentence
an entirely different meaning.
Semantics: Semantics are rules for determining the meaning of words
and sentences.

Pragmatics: The pragmatics of language has to do with the practical

aspects of communicating with others, or the social “niceties” of
language. Things like knowing how to take turns in conversation, the use
of gestures to emphasize a point or indicate a need for more
information, and the different ways in which one speaks to different
people.
The relationship between language
and thought
After acquiring all of this knowledge about language, the question
amongst researchers was does language actually influence thought, or
does thinking influence language?

Jean Piaget theorized that concepts preceded and aided the

development of language. He believed that a child would have a concept
or mental schema for “mother” before being able to learn the term
mother.

Piaget also noticed that preschool children seemed to spend a great

deal of time talking to themselves, even when playing with other
children. He called this process Collective Monologue. Piaget believed
this kind of nonsocial speech was very egocentric from the child’s POV
only, with no regard for the listener. As the children become more socially
involved and less egocentric, these nonsocial patterns would reduce.
 Cont.

Lev Vygotsky believed almost the opposite. He theorized that

language actually helped develop concepts and could also help
the child learn to control social behavior.

Vygotsky believed that once a child learned the word “mama”, the
various elements of what a mother means to a child (warm, loving, soft,
food, safety, etc.) could come together around that word.

He also believed that the egocentric speech of the preschool child was
actually a way for the child to plan their behavior and organize
actions so their goals could be obtained. Vygotsky believed this
“Private Speech” would actually increase as children become more
socially active in their preschool years. Also, that especially bright
children, tend to use more private speech when learning how to socialize
with other children or when working on a difficult task.
Animal Studies in Language
Can animals communicate?
Yes! Animals communicate in many ways. They use sounds such as
the rattle of a rattlesnake or the warning growl of an angry dog. There
are also physical behaviors, such as the “dance” of honeybees that tells
the other bees where a source of pollen is.
Can animals be taught to use symbols that are abstract?
There have been attempts to teach animals (primates & dolphins) how
to use sign language, as animals lack the vocal structure to form words.
The most successful of these experiments has been with a chimpanzee
named Kanzi. He was trained to press abstract symbols on a computer
keyboard. At last count Kanzi could understand about 150 spoken
English words, he has managed to follow correctly complex instructions
up to the level of a 2yr. old child and researchers were able to identify
four sounds which seem to represent banana, grapes, juice and the word
yes for Kanzi.