Properties of fresh

Concrete
 Workability
• Workability refers to the consistency, mobility, and
compactibility of fresh concrete.
• Good workability leads to easier finishing and more
uniform properties of concrete.
• It also affects the properties of concrete after it
hardens.
• Workability depends on the physical characteristics of
aggregates and cement, proportioning of the concrete
components, water content, the equipment used, and
the construction conditions such as thickness and
reinforcement.
 Slump test
• The slump test (ASTM C 143 or AASHTO T
119) is the most popular method for
measuring consistency.
• Other methods were also developed that
rely on measuring the applied torque
required to rotate an impeller in concrete
as a function of rotational speed.

Torque workability 
 Slump …
• A truncated cone 300 mm high is
placed on a flat surface, with the small
opening at the top, and concrete is
placed in it and compacted.
• The cone is then lifted, and the extent
to which the concrete slumps down is
measured.
Schematic Diagram of Slump and Slump Flow Tests
After lifting it from the concrete, the
cone has been turned upside down
to give the height to measure from.
 Checks during Slump test
• When carrying out the test, check the following:
1. Ensure that the base on which the test is to be carried out is
at, level, clean and free from vibration, and of adequate size to
stand the cone next to the slumped concrete for measurement.
2. Dampen the mold and place it, with its larger base at the
bottom, on a flat, moist, nonabsorbent rigid surface.
3. If aggregate larger than 40 mm has been used, it must be
removed before the test.
4. Check that the cone is not bent or dented, and the inside
surface is clean.
5. Check that a length of 16 mm diameter steel bar is available
for tamping.
 Checks …
6. Obtain a representative sample. Do not use the first
or last fraction from the truck-mixer.
7. Fill the cone, carefully tamping it in 3 layers with 25
strokes on each. Lift it off vertically. If the concrete
collapses to one side, start again.
8. If the recorded slump is greater than 250 mm an
alternative test method (such as slump flow) should
be used.
9. The slump test must be completed within 2.5 minutes
after taking the sample. Record the result carefully
with details of the date, concrete batch, etc.
The degree of compactability test

• This is just one of a large number of tests for

workability that have been developed as
alternatives to the slump test as the apparatus is
easy to fabricate and use.
• The metal container is filled with concrete to the
top, taking care not to compact it at all.
• The surplus concrete is cut away with trowels to
give a level top surface and the container is
then vibrated until the level of the concrete
stops falling.
The degree of compactability =
Height of container/Height of concrete after vibration

Values over 1.4 indicate a concrete that has not compacted

when originally placed in the container, and thus has a very
ow workability.
Factors affecting workability
• An increase in cement fineness at a given
water content causes a decrease in
workability.
• An increase in w/c causes an increase in
workability.
• A deficiency of fine aggregate can lead to a
harsh mix that is difficult to work.
• An increase in the aggregate-to-cement ratio
results in a decrease in workability for a fixed
w/c ratio.
 Factors …
• Increase in aggregate texture, angularity
and elongation causes a decrease in
workability.
• Entrained air helps improving the workability
of concrete.
– Excessive amounts of entrained air can make
a mixture difficult to finish and may reduce
concrete strength.
• Water-reducing admixtures are used to improve
workability without increasing the w/c ratio.
 Bleeding and segregation
• Bleeding and segregation occur when the
constituents of the mix separate.
• Bleeding is the loss of water from the mix, and
segregation is the loss of aggregate.
• Segregation reduces the strength both in areas
where there is a lack of aggregate, and in areas
where there is a surplus of aggregate.
– The lack of aggregate may produce cracking,
and the surplus may produce voidage.
 Bleeding
• Bleeding is a characteristic related to the
properties of fresh concrete, and it refers to the
presence of water at the surface when the
concrete is fresh.
• The main cause of bleeding is the settlement of
cement and aggregates and the migration of
water to the top.
• Bleeding causes the presence of fine cement
particles at the surface, which form a weak layer
susceptible to scaling.
 Bleeding
• A small amount of bleeding will be harmless
because it reduces the effective w/c ratio, and
provide some water on the surface for curing.
• Larger amounts of water loss causes plastic
settlement and cracking.
• If the rising bleed water carries cement with it, a
dusty, porous surface may result.
• Bleed water trapped under reinforcement reduces
bond and cause voidage.
 Measurements
• Segregation may be observed by inspecting
concrete when it is placed and vibrated on a flat
surface or, alternatively, by cutting hardened
concrete samples, and inspecting the cut surface.
• Bleeding is measured by placing concrete in a
mold and removing and measuring the surface
water at various times after casting.
– Alternatively, the settlement of the concrete
surface may be measured.
 Measurement …
• There are 2 different measurements of bleed
that can be made:
1. Bleed measurement with the bleed water
replaced after measurement. It will normally
all be reabsorbed within 24 h.
2. Bleed measurement with the water removed
and not replaced. This is often a better
simulation of site conditions where sun and
wind dries it off.
 Significance workability for site work

• The most important reason for control of

workability is for placing.
• A concrete with high workability may not
require any work to compact it, but a low
workability mix requires extensive vibration.
• If insufficient vibration is used for the
workability of the concrete, voidage occurs.
– This normally concentrated at the outer edges of the
concrete mass, where the vibration is least effective, and
be visible as “honeycombing,” and “blowholes” that are
seen when the shutters are removed.
 Workability in modern concrete
• The measurement of workability has been the
subject of a considerable amount of recent
research because of 2 increasing trends in
construction:
1. The use of Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC)
is increasing. The workability tests that were
developed for normal concrete do not work for
this material, so new ones have been
developed.
2. The use of concrete pumps and, in particular,
the height to which they pump is increasing.
Measuring the workability required for effective
 Slump meters

• Many ready-mix trucks have slump meters

on them that measure the pressure in the
hydraulic system rotating the drum.
• If the mix has a high slump, it will flow
more freely and require less power to
turn the drum.
– These meters are affected by the grading of the
aggregate and other factors, but can be effective if
used with proper precautions.
 The Slump Flow Test

• This is the most common test for SCC.

• It is similar to the slump test but is not
necessary to tamp the concrete in the
cone.
• The average diameter of the final
spread is recorded, and the time taken
to reach a diameter of 500 mm may
also be recorded.
 The V funnel test

• The V funnel is one of

the other tests for SCC.
• The funnel is filled with
concrete with the gate
closed; the gate is then
opened, and the time for
the concrete to
discharge is measured.
 Viscosity measurements

• The definition of workability is closely related to

the physical definition of viscosity that refers to
the work required to shear a fluid at
different shear rates.
• A viscometer rotates a paddle at different speeds
in a concrete sample, and records the torque
necessary to drive it.
• The device resembles a food mixer, and the
container for the concrete is typically 300 mm
diameter.
 Viscosity …

• Computer control is used normally, and the

speed of rotation (the shear rate) is increased
progressively, and held at different rates, so
the torque (shear stress) can be measured.
• Typical results are shown schematically 
curve shows as the speed is increased, and
then when the speed is decreased 
approximate to a straight line.
• Concrete is best described
as a Bingham fluid because
it has a yield stress.
• This is critical to
concrete pumping.
• If the pump stops for any
reason, it is the yield stress
that determines the
pumping pressure needed
to restart it.
• If this is too high, the line
must be dismantled to
clear it.
• The rate of concrete
delivery (i.e., the rate of
production) is determined
by the viscosity.
• In this study of viscosity, 2 types of fluid
are Bingham and Newtonian; the
difference is shown in the figure.

When low shear stress

Bingham fluids have (below the yield) is
a yield stress applied, they will not
move at all

Newtonian fluids move

(possibly slowly) however
low the shear stress
• Fig. shows schematically the
effect of changes to the mix,
which may be observed
using a viscometer.
• The effect of vibration is
normally to reduce the yield
stress, that is, to make the
concrete flow with only the
effect of gravity.
• Using both superplasticiser
and viscosity modifier
reduces yield but (unlike
adding water) increases
viscosity, and thus prevents Effect of Increasing Parameters of the Mix
segregation.
• This is SCC.
 Viscosity …

• The enclosed area in the Fig. indicates the work

done on the concrete during the cycle that will
make it flow more easily.
• Before discharging concrete from a truck-mixer
that has been standing, it should be mixed at full
speed for at least 2 min, in order to overcome this
and make it flow.
• It may be seen that different mixes may perform
better at different shear rates.
 Viscosity …

• The tests, such as the slump of the degree

of compactability, only measure
performance at a single shear rate, so it is
possible for one mix to perform better
than another in one of these tests, but
worse in another.
• A full understanding of their relative
performance can only be seen from
viscosity tests.
• The different types of concrete may be represented as shown in
Fig.
• Significantly increasing the paste content of a normal concrete
gives a HSC, because the w/c ratio can be reduced.
• If some of this water is added to this mix, while maintaining the
high cement content, this will give a flowing concrete.
• The SCC uses the plasticiser to reduce the yield so it flows, and
then the viscosity modifier to increase the viscosity so it does not
 Loss of workability

• A major contribution to the initial loss of

workability may be absorption of water by the
aggregate.
• This process normally completes by the time
concrete is discharged from a truck-mixer.
• High temperatures accelerates the loss of slump
with time, due to evaporation and increased
hydration rates.
• In hot climates, it may be necessary to cool the
mixing water to control the rate of hydration of
the cement.
 Loss …

• If a water reducer has been used, loss of

slump may be quite sudden.
• If the water temperature exceeds about
70°C, flash set may occur in which
cement substantially hydrates on contact
with the water.
• Adding water to the mix to regain
workability increases the w/c ratio, and
decrease strength and durability.
 Air content
• Air content tests are intended to
measure the content of entrained
air because this is essential to give
the concrete resistance to freeze–
thaw damage.
• Air content measurements will
measure the potential entrained
air (some gets lost during
vibration).
• For an accurate prediction of frost
resistance, the air void spacing is
measured with a microscope on a
cut surface of the hardened
concrete.
 Measurement

• Concrete is placed in the lower container, and the

apparatus is sealed with the water above it.
• Air is then pumped into the top of the apparatus,
and the fall in the level of the water is recorded
as the pressure rises.
• For example, if the original pressure P1 = 1 atm
(i.e., open to atmosphere) and a pressure of P2 =
2 atm causes a volume change of 5 mL; from
equation at constant temperature we know that:
• Where V1 is the initial volume of the
pores, and V2 is the volume at the higher
pressure.
• If, V2/V1 = 0.5 and V1 − V2 = 5
• The original entrained air volume V1 =
10 mL.
• There is also a second type of meter in
which air under pressure above the
concrete is released into a known volume
at atmospheric pressure.
• The calculations are similar.
 Air-entrained concrete
• Air-entrained concrete is typically used to
protect pavements from the effect of
freeze/thaw cycles.
• At a given w/c ratio, an increase in entrained
air causes a decrease in strength.
• However, typically w/c ratio is reduced for air-
entrained concretes, hence comparable
strengths with non air-entrained concretes are
achieved.
 Conclusion
• Single point tests, such as slump, are
useful for site use, but to get a full
indication of workability, a viscometer is
needed.
• Bleeding involves loss of mix water;
segregation normally means loss of
aggregate.
• The air content of wet concrete can be
measured with pressure meters.
 Example - 1
• Rheological tests are carried out on three different concrete
mixes, and the results are as follows:

Shear Rate
Shear Stress (Relative Units)
(Relative Superplasticis
Units) Control Mix High W/C Mix
ed Mix

0 0.5 0.4 0.3

0.2 0.62 0.51 0.42
0.4 0.73 0.58 0.53
0.6 0.83 0.62 0.63
0.8 0.91 0.64 0.71
1.0 1.0 0.66 0.80
• Discuss the conclusions that may be
drawn about the performance of these
mixes in the following:
a. A slump test
b. A degree of compactability test
c. A concrete pump
d. Placement from a skip
e. Vibration in a shutter
1.2

0.8

Control Mix
0.6
High W/C Mix
Superplasticised Mix

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
 Solution
• (a, d) Slump test and placement from skip involve low
shear rates, so the superplasticised mix will flow
most.
• (b, e) Vibration (and degree of compactability test that
is vibrated) is at medium to high shear rate, so the
high w/c mix may be similar, or slightly better, than
the superplasticised mix.
• (c) Pumping involves high shear rates, so the high w/c
mix may pump easiest. It may, however, be less
cohesive (indicated by low gradient), and thus
segregate. The superplasticised mix has the lowest
yield (shear stress at zero shear rate), so it may be the
easiest mix to restart pumping if it stops.
 Example - 2
1. What is the difference between air entrained concrete, and
foamed concrete?
2. When the air content of a sample of concrete is measured,
using a pressure type air meter, the following observations
are made:
• Volume of concrete: 10 L
• Initial pressure: Open to atmosphere
• Pressure change: 1.5 Atm
• Volume change: 80 mL
• What is the percentage of entrained air?
 Solution
1. Air entrained concrete has about 4% air for frost
resistance.
Foamed concrete has about 30–60% air and no
coarse aggregate, and is for trench backfill.
2. Using the relationships:
– V2/V1 = P1/P2 = 1/2.5 = 0.4 – V1−V2 = 80 mL
– Thus (solving) V1 = 133 mL
– Thus, air = 133/10,000 = 1.33%
 Example - 3
• Describe curing methods which would be
suitable for the following:
1. A road slab.
2. A thin concrete wall in cold weather.
3. A thick concrete wall in cold weather.
4. A concrete beam in a heated precasting
shed.
 Solutions
1. Heat retention is not needed because early strength is not
needed. Water retention may be achieved with a spray-on
membrane, but windy conditions will make this difficult.
Once the concrete has set, tarpaulins, etc. may be used. If
tarpaulins are held off the surface, a “wind tunnel” effect
must be avoided.
2. In extreme conditions, it may be necessary to apply heat
in cold weather. If not, thick straw mattresses or recycled
carpet, etc. may be used; these will also give water
retention. Leaving the shutters in place for a few days will
help. If they are metal, fix polystyrene on the back. This
may be followed up with a spray-on membrane when they
are removed.
 Solutions
3. Heat retention is only needed to
reduce temperature gradients.
External heating should not be used.
Water retention as (1)
4. Water retention with a membrane
(works OK out of the wind). Steam
curing for rapid work.
 Example - 4
• Describe the correct procedure for
compaction of concrete in the
following pours, indicating the
different types of plant that might be
used:
1. A road slab.
2. A heavily reinforced beam.
 Solutions
1. Road slab: possible to use internal
vibrators, but beam vibrator is more likely.
2. RC beam: could use internal vibrators –
should be powerful, electric, or petrol
units would give more power at a smaller
diameter than compressed air units.
Shutter vibrators could be used, but
formwork must be very secure for these.