SIGNAL CONDITIONING

INTRODUCTION TO SIGNAL
CONDITIONING
 The output signal from the sensor of a measurement system has
generally to be processed to make it suitable for the next stage of
operation.
 Signal conditioning refers to operations performed on signals to
convert them to a suitable for interfacing with other elements in the
process-control loop.
 The signal may be:
 Too small – have to be amplified
 Contain interference-has to be remove
 Non linear - required linearization SIGNAL
 Be analog - have to made digital CONDITIONING
 Be digital – have to made analog
signal conditioning
 OUTLINE
 Introduction to signal
conditioning
 Bridge circuits
 Amplifiers
 Protection
 Filters
 INTRODUCTION TO SIGNAL
CONDITIONING
 PROCESSES IN SIGNAL CONDITIONING
 The following are some of the processes that can
occur in conditioning a signal.

(1) Protection to prevent damage to

the next element

A microprocessor, as a result of high

current or voltage. Thus there can be
series current- limiting resistors, fuses
to break if the current is too high,
polarity protection and voltage
limitation circuits.
 INTRODUCTION TO SIGNAL
CONDITIONING

(2) Getting the signal into the (3) Getting the level of the signal
right type of signal right

This can mean taking the signal The signal from a thermocouple
into a d.c voltage or current. Thus might be just a few milivolts. If
for example, the resistance change the signal is to be fed into an
of a strain gauge has to be analog-to-digital converter for
converted into a voltage change. inputting to a microprocessor then
This can be done by the use of a it needs to be made much larger,
Wheatstone bridge and using the volts rather than milivolts.
out-of-balance voltage. It can Operational amplifiers are widely
mean taking the signal digital or used for amplification.
analogue.
 INTRODUCTION TO SIGNAL
CONDITIONING

(4) Eliminating or reducing (5) Signal manipulation

noise

Filter might be used to eliminate Making it a linear function of

mains noise from a signal some variable. The signals from
some sensors, e.g flowmeter, are
non-linear and thus a signal
conditioner might be used so that
the signal fed on to the next
element is linear
 BRIDGE
 Bridge are electrical circuits for performing measurements on
resistances in DC and general impedances in AC.
 Bridge circuits are an integral part of measurement device. The
bridges are widely used as a variable conversion element in
measurement system.
 Bridge circuit are used to convert impedance variations into
voltage variations. They produce an output in the form of a
voltage.
 The bridge circuits operate on both null or balance condition and
deflection indication principles (unbalance condition).
 Bridge can be classified into two types:
 Direct current (dc) bridge
 Alternating current (ac) bridge
 BRIDGE CONT’D
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

 Figure above shows the schematic diagram of a

Wheatstone bridge.
 The bridge has four resistive arms together with a source of
voltage and a detector meter such as galvanometer.
 BRIDGE CONT’D
 BALANCE CONDITION
 At balance condition, the current through the galvanometer,
Ig= 0.
 From the previous circuit:-
At balance condition, Vcb = Vdb  I3R3 = I4R4 ………………(1)

and, Vca = Vda  I1R1 = I2R2 ………………

(2)

Since the bridge is balanced, then I1 = I3 ; I2 = I4

Vca Vda
Hence, 
Vca  Vcb Vda  Vdb
R1 R2

( R1  R3) ( R 2  R 4)
 BRIDGE CONT’D
Therefore,

R1( R 2  R 4) R 2( R1  R 3)
Thus,
R1R 4 R 2 R 3
R 2 R3
R4 
R1
If R4 is the unknown resistor, its resistance Rx can be express as follows:-

R 2 R3
Rx 
R1
 BRIDGE CONT’D
 Application of balance condition Wheatstone bridge
 It can be used to locate faults in cables
 The principle of locating faults is the same as
measuring the resistance value.
 BRIDGE CONT’D
 UNBALANCED CONDITION
 Deflection bridges are used to convert the output of resistive
sensors into a voltage signal.
 When the bridge is unbalanced, there is current flowing through
the galvanometer.
 The current, Ig is determined using a THEVENIN
EQUIVALENT circuit ZTH as figure below.
 BRIDGE CONT’D
 Determination of Thevenin Equivalent circuit

Figure (a)
Figure (b)

Figure (c)
 BRIDGE CONT’D
Referring to Figure (a),

VTH Vcd
but

VTH Vca  Vad

 R1 R2 
VTH E   
 R1  R 3 R 2  R 4 
 BRIDGE CONT’D
Referring to Figure (b) and (c), ZTH can be determined as follows:-

R1R 3 R2R4
ZTH  
R1  R 3 R 2  R 4
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is s

VTH
Ig 
ZTH

Where Rg, the internal resistance of the galvanometer is neglected.

 BRIDGE CONT’D
If a load is connected across the output terminals, then the current
through the load is:-

VTH
Ig 
ZTH  RG
The total deflection of galvanometer can be determined as:

D SIg
Where S is the sensitivity of galvanometer in unit mm/μA
 EXAMPLE 4
At 20oC, the Wheatstone bridge as shown in Figure 4 is in balance
condition when R1=1000Ω, R2=842Ω, and R3=500 Ω. Meanwhile, R4
is copper Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD). The internal
resistance of galvanometer, Rg=100Ω and the temperature coefficient
of the RTD, α=0.0042Ω/oC. If the RTD is dipped into boiling water
(100oC), determine the deflection of galvanometer if its sensitivity is
1mm/µA.
 DC Bridges
Wheatstone Bridge and Balance
Condition:
Kelvin Double Bridge: 1 to
0.00001 Ω
 AMPLIFIER
An amplifier is an electronic circuit which makes a signal bigger.
Input Output
Amplifier

Amplification is often needed in systems using analogue signals.

AMPLIFIER CONT’D
 AMPLIFIER CONT’D
 Concentrate only:-
 INVERTING AMPLIFIER
 NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
 VOLTAGE FOLLOWER / BUFFER
 VOLTAGE SUMMING / SUMMER
 AMPLIFIER CONT’D
 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (op-amp) is a
semiconductor device consisting of a dozen or so
transistors and upwards of a dozen resistors sealed in a
package.
 Simple amplifier for analog circuit can be developed by

using this op-amp.

Normally VCC is set to +15V

 AMPLIFIER CONT’D
 Properties of Ideal Op-Amp

A   (Infinite gain)
Rin  (Infinite input resistance)
Rout 0 (Zero output resistance)

i 0
i 0 For idealized model
V V
INVERTING AMPLIFIER
INVERTING AMPLIFIER

Vo Rf
AV  
Vi R1
INVERTING AMPLIFIER CONT’D

if
At node +,
Rf
iin
V+=0, thus V-=0
V-
-
At node -,
R1 i- +
+ since V-=0, iin=Vin/R1, if=Vout/Rf,
Vout
Vin
V+ KCL at node -,
-
Iin+i-+if=0  iin = -if
Vin/R1=-Vo/Rf
Vo/Vi=-Rf/R1 = AV
 EXAMPLE 5
Find the Vout for both circuit shown below:

Rf=100kΩ Rf=100kΩ

- - +
R1=25kΩ + R1=25kΩ
+ +
Vout Vout
50mV 50mV
20kΩ
- -

(a) (b)
NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
NON INVERTING AMPLIFIER

Vo Rf
AV  1 
Vi R1
 NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
CONT’D
if At node +,
Rf V+=Vin, thus V-=Vin
iin V-
At node -,
- +
R1 i-
+ since V-=Vin, iin=(0-Vin)/R1,
Vout
V+ if=(Vout-Vin)/Rf,
Vin -
KCL at node -,
Iin+i-+if=0  iin = -if
(0-Vin)/R1=(Vo-Vin)/Rf
Vo/Vi=1 + Rf/R1 = AV
VOLTAGE FOLLOWER / BUFFER

Vo
AV  1
Vi
Can be used in isolating one circuit from loading effects of
another
 VOLTAGE FOLLOWER / BUFFER
CONT’D
if
At node +,
V-
V+=Vin, thus V-=Vin
- +
i-
+
Vout
At node -,
V+ Vout = -Vin
Vin -

Thus,
Vout/Vin = 1
This circuit is called voltage follower because
Vout(t) = Vin(t)

Voltage follower/buffer will prevent the load from drawing current

directly from a source or sub circuit modeled by V in
 EXAMPLE 6
In the circuit below, what is voltage reading of the
voltmeter provided that the internal resistance of the
voltmeter is 100Ω?

R1=2kΩ
-
+
V
Vs=10V R2=1kΩ
 VOLTAGE SUMMING/SUMMER

 Rf Rf Rf 
Vo   V1  V2  V3 
 R1 R2 R3 

n input,  Rf Rf Rf 
Vo   V1  V2    Vn 
 R1 R2 Rn 
 VOLTAGE SUMMING/SUMMER
CONT’D
We derive the gain for each source one-bye-one. Then, applying the
superposition theory, the output of the circuit is just summation of
multiplication for each gain with corresponding source.

 Rf Rf Rf 
Vo   V1  V2  V3 
 R1 R2 R3 

GAIN OF CASCADE CIRCUIT

Vin AV1 AV2 AV3 Vout

Vout
 AV  AV 1 xAV 2 xAV 3
Vin
 EXAMPLE 7
Determine the total gain produced by the network below.
Then, determine the output voltage, Vout

2kΩ
9kΩ

-
1kΩ + Vo1 -
3kΩ
+
Vin=50mV Vout
SUMMERY OF AMPLIFIERS
 PROTECTION
Problem
A unit after a sensor has a possibility of damage by high current
or high voltage

How to protect?

High Current High Voltage

a series resistor to limit the use of a Zener diode

the current to an circuit
acceptable level
a fuse to break if the
current does exceed a
safe level.
 PROTECTION CONT’D

Input

Zener diodes behave like ordinary diodes up to some breakdown voltage when they
become conducting.
Thus to allow a maximum voltage of 5 V but stop voltages above 5.1 V getting through, a
Zener diode with a voltage rating of 5.1 V might be chosen.
When the voltage rises to 5.1 V the Zener diode breakdown and its resistance drops to a
very low value.
The result is that the voltage across the diode, and hence that outputted to the next circuit,
drops.
Because the Zener diode is a diode with a low resistance for current in one direction
through it and a high resistance for the opposite direction.
 FILTER
 WHAT DOES A FILTER DO?
 In circuit theory, a filter is an electrical network that alters the
amplitude and/or phase characteristics of a signal with respect to
frequency.
 Filters are often used in electronic systems to emphasize signals
in certain frequency ranges and reject signals in other frequency
ranges/decrease the amplitude.
 FILTER CONT’D
 Elimination / reduction of noise: electromagnetic (EM),
mains, vibration etc.
 Detection of particular signal frequencies.

Low pass filter High pass filter Band pass filter

Gain Gain
Gain
fc2 fc1
fc1 fc2
frequency, f frequency, f
frequency, f

fc = cut-off frequency
 FILTER CONT’D
LOW PASS FILTER

R Av(dB)

- 3dB

Vi C Vo

f
fc

 A filter designed to pass all frequency below a given cut-off

frequency
 Approximate low frequency with w  0 and high frequency
with w  
 at low frequency, gain = 1, &
 at high frequency, gain = 0
 FILTER CONT’D

Low-pass Filter

+ +

x(t) y(t)

- -
 FILTER CONT’D
R 1
Vo  Vi
1  jRC
Vi C Vo Vo 1
gain  
Vi 1  ( RC) 2

Cut off frequency is where the gain = 1/2 ( = 3 dB)

At cut-off frequency ZR= Zc. Therefore

f c 1 /(2RC)
 FILTER CONT’D
HIGH PASS FILTER
Av(dB) A
C m
- 3dB 0.707A
m

Vi R Vo

fc
fc1 f
 A filter designed to pass all frequency above a given cut-off frequency
 Approximate low frequency with w  0 and high frequency with w 

 at low frequency, gain = 0, &
 at high frequency, gain = 1
 FILTER CONT’D

High-pass Filter

+ +

x(t) y(t)

- -
 FILTER CONT’D
C jRC
Vo  Vi
1  jRC

Vi R Vo
Vo RC
gain  
Vi 1  ( RC) 2

Cut off frequency is where the gain = 1/2 ( = 3 dB)

At cut-off frequency ZR= Zc. Therefore

f c 1 /(2RC)
 FILTER CONT’D
BAND PASS FILTER

C1 R2

Vi R1 C2 Vo

 Designed to pass all frequency that fall between fc1 and fc2
 High pass filter followed by Low pass filter
 Gain :
Vo R 1C1 1 1 1
 , f c1    fc2
Vi 1  ( R 1C1 ) 2 1  ( R 2C2 ) 2 2R1C1 2R2C2
 FILTER CONT’D

Av(dB) HP LP

- 3dB

fc1 fc2 f
 FILTER CONT’D
LP HP
ZR
Zc Vo  (Vi )
Vo  (Vi ) Zc  ZR
Zc  ZR
Vo ZR
Vo Zc 
 Vi Zc  ZR
Vi Zc  ZR
R
1 
j C 1 R
 j C
1 R
j C R

 1  jRC 
 1  
 


 jC 
  j C 
  0  jRC
 jRC 
 1  jRC  

 
 1  jRC 1  jRC
 jC 
1 0 2  (RC ) 2
 Vo
1  jRC 
Vi 1  RC 
2

Vo 1
 Vo RC
Vi 1  RC  
2
Vi 1  RC 
2