PARTS OF SPEECH
NOUNS
There are four types of nouns:
Common nouns - objects/people, e.g.
the chair, the noise, the receptionist.
Proper nouns - specific names of people, places,
products, e.g. James, Pretoria, Ford.
Abstract nouns - feelings and concepts that cannot
be heard or seen, e.g.
hatred, heroism, leadership.
Collective nouns - groups of people, animals,
things, e.g. a team of rugby players, a flock of birds.
Gerunds – nouns formed from verbs by adding –ing,
e.g. Reading is an enjoyable pastime; Running keeps
you fit.
ADJECTIVES
o Adjectives describe, qualify or limit nouns or
pronouns, e.g.
The green sweater costs fifty rand.
Dr Jones is our doctor. He is kind and competent.
Descriptive adjectives, e.g. the silly child
Adjectives of quantity, e.g. The entire sum.. ,
some people ...
Adjectives of number, e.g. a few students; the
first bus.
Demonstrative adjectives, e.g. this book; those
students
Interrogative adjectives, e.g. Whose book;
Which way
ADVERBS
Adverbs can modify verbs,
adjectives or other adverbs, e.g.
She moved swiftly. (swiftly
modifies moved [verb])
It is an exceptionally boring
game. (exceptionally modifies
boring [adjective])
The girl whispered very softly.
(very modifies softly [adverb])
ADVERBS
Kinds of adverbs:
Manner – how an action takes place, e.g.
Sandile speaks softly.
Time – when ac action takes place, e.g.
My father left yesterday.
Place – where an action takes place, e.g.
John went outside.
Degree – describes intensity, e.g. Kagiso
is too tired to go out.
Frequency – how often an action takes
place, e.g. He is always on time.
PRONOUNS
Pronouns are words that replace
nouns. You do not repeat a noun
several times, but use a pronoun in
its place, e.g.
Vincent asked Vincent’s mother if
Vincent could go to Vincent’s
friend.
Compare
Vincent asked his mother if he
could visit his friend.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
I,you, he/she/it, we, they
(Subject)
Me, you, him/her/it, us, them
(Object)
My, your, his/her/its, our, their
(Possessive)
Mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs
(Possessive)
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Relative pronouns are used to join related
sentences.
Who (subject), whom (object) and
whose (possessive) are used for people,
e.g.
The man who spoke to you, is our manager.
Do you know the lecturer to whom Vincent is
talking
Williamwhose wife died, will only return
next week.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
That is used for people, animals and things, e.g.
The student that did not hand in his test, will get
no marks.
The book that Peter was looking for last week,
was on his desk.
Which is used for animals and things, e.g.
The elephant which performed in the circus, was
put down yesterday.
When and where can be used for time and
place, e.g.
This is the office where I work.
Tomorrow is the day when I shall finish the
report
CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions have various functions when
linking sentences.
Add: and, also, in addition, e.g. He was
awarded a medal for bravery and a cash bonus.
Contrast: but, yet, however, though,
although, e.g. The prosecutor lost the case
although he did his best.
Cause/Effect: therefore, because, then,
that, as, otherwise, e.g. Management regards
communication as important because informed
employees can act in a confident manner.
CONJUNCTIONS
Time: after, before, when, until, e.g.
The secretary may not leave until the
report has been completed.
Place: where, wherever, e.g. The
shop assistant did not know where the
receipt book was.
Manner: as, so that, e.g. In an
emergency you must act as you think
best.
Condition: if, unless, e.g. If you work
hard you will be rewarded.
PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word which is placed before a noun or
pronoun and it indicates the relationship between the
noun/pronoun and the other words in the sentence. Many
prepositions show a relationship of time and space.
Kinds of prepositions:
Simple – single word, e.g. from, with, in, etc.
Complex – combination of words, e.g. Ahead of,
due to, next to, etc.
General examples:
about, after, against, among(st), around, at, along, above,
before, behind, below, beside, between, by, down, from, for,
in, into, next to, of, off, on, onto, over, to, under, up, with.
VERBS
The verb is perhaps the most important part of the sentence.
A verb or compound verb shows:
An action performed by the noun or pronoun (doing word)
– ran, sang
The state of being of a noun or pronoun – he is happy.
There are three types of verbs:
◦ Transitive: A transitive verb is followed by an object
The girl (subject) ate (verb) the birthday cake (object)
◦ Intransitive: An intransitive verb does not have an object
Mary (subject) ran (verb) (no object)
◦ Linking: A linking verb shows the connection between noun and
noun, or noun and adjective.
The man (noun) is (linking verb) a fool (noun) The man
and fool are the same person. Fool is not an object.
The coal (noun) is (linking verb) black (adjective)
VERBS
Verbs show:
Number, e.g.
• They are ....; He is .....; etc.
Time, e.g.
• Present – John works ....
• Past – John worked ...
• Future – John will work ...
VERBS
Finite and non-finite verb forms
Finite: A verb is finite (complete) when it has a subject,
number and a tense, e.g. They are reading slowly. are
reading is the present tense, indicates a plural subject
and it has a subject they.
Non-finite: A verb is non-finite (incomplete) when it has
no subject, no definite number and no certain tense, e.g.
Taking the train. The verb ‘taking’ has no subject, no
number and no tense. It is therefore non-finite.
There are two non-finite parts of a verb:
Infinitive: This is the base form of the verb and is usually
preceded by to, e.g. to fly, to eat, to sleep, to run
Participle: There are two participles indicating the
completeness or incompleteness of an action.
VERBS
Participles:
The present participle usually ends in –ing, e.g.
writing, singing, reading
The past participle usually ends in -ed, e.g. laughed,
presented, talked.
Auxiliary Verbs: (Helping) These are verbs which,
together with a non-finite part of another verb (a
participle or infinitive) form a finite verb. The most
common auxiliary verbs are:
be, can, do, have, may, must and they are used as
follows:
The sun is shining (auxiliary+present participle)
Jane must have seen him (2 auxiliaries+past
participle).
John ought to study. (auxiliary+infinitive)
ARTICLES
The words a, an, and the are
articles.
Articles are either definite or
indefinite. They combine with a
noun to indicate the type of
reference being made by the
noun.
The definite article is the.
The indefinite article is a / an.
Definite article – the
Can be used before singular and plural, countable
and non-countable nouns
It is used to:
Indicate a noun that is definite or has been
previously specified in the context, e.g.
• Please close the door.
• I like the clothes you gave me.
Indicate a noun that is unique, e.g.
• Praise the Lord!
• The Orange River is near here.
Designate a natural phenomenon, e.g.
• The nights get shorter in the summer.
Refer to a time period, e.g.
• This song was very popular in the 1980s.
Definite article – the
NOTE:
When we speak of something or someone for the
first time we use a or an, the next time we refer
to that object or person we use the definite article
the, e.g.
• I live in a house. The house is quite old and has
four bedrooms.
• I ate in a Chinese restaurant. The restaurant was
very good.
The can be used with uncountable nouns, or can
be dropped entirely. Compare the following
examples.
• He drank the water. (specific water, e.g. the
water his wife brought him) OR
• He drank water. (any water)
Indefinite articles - a,
an
Used before singular nouns that are
unspecified.
An - used before singular countable
nouns beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o,
u) or vowel sound, e.g.
• an apple, an elephant, an issue, an
orange, an hour
A- used before singular countable
nouns beginning with consonants (other
than a, e, i, o, u), e.g.
• a stamp, a desk, a TV, a cup
