CHAPTER SIX

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

 The task of data collection begins after a research problem
has been defined and research design chocked out.
 Data are records of the actual state of some measurable
aspect of the universe at a particular point in time.
 Data are not abstract; they are concrete, they are
measurements or the tangible and countable features of the
world.
 In general, data could be quantitative (expressed in
numerical form) or qualitative (expressed in the form of
verbal descriptions rather than numbers).
 When choosing whether to collect quantitative or
qualitative data, the following factors need to be
considered:
1. The purpose for which the data is required: quantitative data is
necessary if one requires a high degree of precision or wants to
perform statistical analysis, while qualitative data is useful for
providing a detailed impression of the issue or characteristic
concerned.

2. The subject matter: some kinds of subject matter (eg. Production,

export levels, prices, imports, income, etc.) are relatively easily
presented in numerical(quantitative form), while others (eg. Attitude
to a new product, opportunity and constraint, religious beliefs, etc)
tend to be more appropriately presented in qualitative form.
3. The method of data collection: the collection of
quantitative data is based on statistically designed survey
procedures, while the collection of qualitative data relies
primarily on detailed observation or interview.
4. The method of data presentation: qualitative data can
often be ‘translated’ into a quantitative form if it can be
‘scaled’ in some way; for example, information on attitudes
can be grouped into categories (eg strongly agree, agree,
neutral, disagree, strongly disagree) which can then be
subjected to statistical analysis.
 Sources of Data

 The source of data are primary and secondary data

1. Primary data are those which are collected afresh and

for the first time, and thus happen to be original in
character.
 Its advantage is its relevance to the user, but it is also
likely to be expensive in time and money to collect.
2. Secondary data are those which have already been
collected by someone else and which have already been
passed through the statistical process.
 It is information extracted from an existing source, probably
published document . From Practical point of view this type
of information is collected for any purpose other than the
current research objectives and is not always up-to-date.
 For this reason it may not precisely meet the needs of the
secondary user. However, it is less expensive and time-
consuming to obtain.
 Therefore, it provides a good starting point and very often
can help the investigator to formulate and generate ideas
which can later be refined further by collecting primary data.
 Collection of Primary Data
 Primary data can be collected through

experimentation in experimental research or through

surveys, whether sample surveys or census surveys.

A. An experiment: is a special form of research, which sets

out to examine the relationship between two or more factors by

manipulating one whilst measuring changes in the other.

 There are two types of experiments: Field experiments

and laboratory experiments.

B. Survey: refers to the method of securing information
concerning a phenomenon under study from all or a selected
number of respondents of the concerned universe.
 Surveys can be classified as in terms of
(time&administration)
-Time—when or what frequency a survey is administered and
-Administration—how a survey is delivered to respondents
 With regards to time, there are two main types of surveys:
cross-sectional and longitudinal.
A cross-sectional survey: is a survey studies that collect and
analyze data from a population at a single point in time. The
researcher can generalize findings from such one-shot studies
to the sampled population only at the time of the survey.
A longitudinal survey :takes place over time with two or more
data collections and has the benefit of measuring change over
time.
 The opposite of a longitudinal study is a cross-sectional
study. While longitudinal studies repeatedly observe the
same population over a period of time
The following are the types of longitudinal surveys
i) A trend survey: it is a longitudinal survey in which a general
population is studied over time.
 Researchers conducting trend surveys are interested in how
people’s feeling change over time.
 Different samples are selected from a general population and
studied at different time. Usually the population is sampled
and random samples are measured.
 While different persons or cases are sampled and studied in
each survey, each of these sample represents the same
population but at different time.
 It is based on the description of general population overtime,
but the members of the population will change overtime of
study.
E.g. Study on the attitude of workers of company-x towards
their management activity: the change in Religion of
Arbaminch University students over time.
ii. Cohort survey: is a longitudinal survey in which a
researcher identifies some category of people that are of
interest and then regularly surveys people who classify into that
category.
 The same people do not necessarily participate from year to
year, but all participants must meet whatever categorical
criteria fulfill the researcher’s primary interest.
 Cohort studies focus on the description of specific
population overtime by taking fresh samples each

time data are collected.

 Common cohorts that may be of interest to
researchers include: people of particular generations
or those who were born around the same time period;
graduating classes; people who began work in a given
industry at the same time; or perhaps people who have
some specific work experience in common.
E.g.If we collected data on attitude of 20-years old youth,
then we can do it on 30- years group the second round, 40-
years group the third round and so on
iii. A panel survey is a longitudinal survey in which the same
sample is measured two or more times.
 Imagine trying to administer a survey to the same 100
people every year, it will be difficult to collect data when they
move, and when they die.
Panel studies (unlike trend and cohort studies) can not be
carried out through secondary analysis of previously collected
data. Therefore, it is expensive and time consuming
 Survey includes several methods of collecting primary data

such as

 observation, interview, through questionnaires, and other

methods.
a. Observation method: Observation is the most

commonly used method of data collection.

 This method could be used both for cross checking

information obtained using other methods and for

understanding processes which are difficult to grasp in an

interview context.

 This method is useful when studying subjects who are not

capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason

Advantages of observation method:
1. subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately
2. the information obtained relates to what is currently
happening;
 it is not complicated by either the past behavior or future
intentions or attitudes
3. it is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and
as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on
the part of respondents as happens to be the case in the
interview or the questionnaire method.
 Types of observation
Structured observation: the observer has a clear
definition of the units to be observed, the style of
recording the observed information, the selection of the
pertinent data of observation, etc.
Non-structured observation: the opposite of what is
mentioned under structured observation
Depending on the nature of the observer, we can
classify observations into three basic forms:
Secretive - where the subjects of the study are unaware
that they are being observed
Non-participant: where the subjects of the study are
aware that they are being observed but the observer
takes no part in the behavior being observed.
b. Interview method: The interview method of collecting data
involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms
of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through
personal interviews and, if possible, through telephone
interviews.
1. Personal interviews: This method requires a person
(interviewer) asking questions in a face-to-face contact to the
interviewee.
If the interview is carried out in a structured way, it is called
structured interview
•This involves the use of a set of programmed questions and
highly standardized techniques of recording.
 The interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid
procedure laid down, asking questions in a form and order
prescribed.
In unstructured interview, the interviewer is allowed much
greater freedom to ask, in case of need, supplementary
questions, or at times he may omit certain questions if the
situation so requires.
 He may even change the sequence of questions.
 the unstructured interviews are characterized by a flexibility
of approach to questioning.
 the analysis of unstructured responses becomes much more
difficult and time consuming than that of the structured
responses obtained in case of structured interviews.
Advantages of personal interviews:
1. More information and in greater depth can be obtained
2. The interviewer by his own skill can overcome the
resistance, if any, of the respondents
3. There is greater flexibility especially in case of unstructured
interviews
4. personal information can be obtained easily
5. samples can be controlled effectively as there arises no
difficulty of missing returns; non-response generally remains
very low
6. the language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or
educational level of the person interviewed
Some of the weaknesses of the personal interview method:
1. It is very expensive, specially when large and widely spread
geographical sample is taken
2. Certain types of respondents may not be easily available
(e.g. Important officials or executives, people in high income
groups)
3. It is relatively more time consuming
For successful implementation of the interview method,
interviewers should be carefully selected, trained and informed.
They should be honest, open, hardworking, impartial and
must possess the technical competence and necessary
practical experience.
Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that
interviewers are neither cheating nor deviating(different) from
instructions given to them for performing their job efficiently.
2. Telephone interviews: This method of collecting
information consists in contacting respondents on
telephone itself.
 It is not a very widely used method, but plays important
part in industrial surveys, particularly in developed
countries
Some of the merits of telephone interview are:
1. It is faster than other methods
2. It is cheaper than personal interview method; the cost per
response is relatively low
3. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment
to respondents
4. No field staff is required
Some of the demerits of telephone interview are:
1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers
2. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone
facilities
3. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where
comprehensive(wide) answers are required
4. Questions have to be short and to the point
c.Data collection through questionnaire: This method is
quite popular, particularly in case of big inquiries.
 Service evaluations of hotels, restaurants, transportation
providers, and other service providers are good examples
of self-administered questionnaire.
 Often a short questionnaire is left to be completed by the
respondent in a convenient location.
 In a mail survey, a questionnaire can also be sent (usually
by post) to the persons concerned with a request to
answer the questions and return the questionnaire.
 A questionnaire consists of a number of questions
printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set
of forms.
 The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are
expected to read and understand the questions and
write down the reply in the space meant for the
purpose in the questionnaire itself.
The merits of this method are
1. it is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in
respondents’ own words
2. respondents have adequate time to give well thought
out answers
3. respondents who are not easily approachable can also
be reached conveniently
The main demerits of this method can be
4. There is also possibility of ambiguous(unclear) replies
or omission of replies altogether to certain questions
5. it can be used only when respondents are educated
and cooperating
6. the control over questionnaire may be lost once it is
sent(there is limited control of the questionnaire)
d. Schedules: data collection through schedules is very much
like the collection of data through questionnaire, with little
difference which lies in the fact that schedules are being filled
in by the enumerators who are specially appointed(selected) for
the purpose.
 These enumerators along with schedules go to respondents,
put to them the questions from the proforma in the order the
questions are listed and record the replies in the space
meant for the same
 Here, enumerators should be very carefully selected and
trained to perform the job well.
 Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the
capacity of cross-examination in order to find out the truth.
 Above all, they should be honest, open and hard worker
Essentials of a good questionnaire: To be
successful, questionnaire should be comparatively
short and simple.
 Questions should proceed in logical sequence
moving from easy to more difficult questions.
 Questions may be dichotomous (yes or no
answers), multiple choice (alternative answers
listed), or open-ended (inviting free response).
e.Focus Group Discussion /FGD/method : The
main purpose of the focus group interview/discussion
shall be to provide information concerning
community-level data through group interviews.
 It provide the kind of information from different
group.
 The questions to be included in the structured FGD
shall be limited to the absolute minimum, and shall
include simple and clearly formulated questions.
FGD typically has organized 6 to 12 members. Eight is a
popular size. If the group is too small, one or two loud-mouths
can dominate it, and if it is beyond 12, it gets hard to
manage.
 FGDs are made up of individuals that are well acquainted to
each other (share common knowledge and other in inbuilt
mechanism of control exists concerning the information that
they provide. Hence, information obtained through FGD has a
wide range of validity.
 Information that is obtained from FGD can be extremely
useful particularly when it is used together with evidences
obtained through other methods of research. In this regard
i) Focus group can provide explanations for the way in which
survey respondents have responded.
ii) Information obtained from FGDs can be used to check on
and verify data obtained through other methods
iii) Focus group interviews/discussions/ can also serve as
convenient means of obtaining data on a wide population
within the shortest time and economy of cost
Collection of Secondary Data
 Secondary data is data collected by someone other than
the actual user. It means that the information is already
available, and someone analyses it.
 The secondary data includes magazines, newspapers,
books, journals, etc. It may be either published data or
unpublished data.
 In any type of study, it is advisable to assess the availability
of secondary data before embarking upon a primary data
collection.
The following list includes Sources of Secondary data:
• Different Central Statistical Authority Publications;
•Different Publications by Regional Governments and NGOS
•Various publications by the different Ministries;
•Publications of the National Bank of Ethiopia;
•Reports and publications of various associations, business
organizations, etc
•Report of research scholars and consultants;
•Popular media (Newspapers, magazines, Radio and
television etc
Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data.
The researcher, before using secondary data, must see that :
1. Reliability of data: reliability can be tested by answering
questions like who collected them? What were the sources
of data? What methods were used to collect them? At what
time were they collected? How they were analyzed etc.

2. Suitability of data: Data must be evaluated whether they

could serve for another purpose other than the one for which
they were collected. This should be seen in terms of
definitions of various terms and units of collection used at the
time of collecting the data from primary source originally.
3. Adequacy of data: This should be done in terms of area
coverage, level of accuracy, number of respondents, etc.
Selection of Appropriate Method for Data Collection
 There are various methods of data collection. As such the
researcher must carefully select the method for his own study,
keeping in view the following factors
1. Nature, scope and object of inquiry: The method selected
should be such that it suits the type of inquiry that is to be
conducted by the researcher. This factor is also important in
deciding whether the data already available (secondary data) are
to be used or the data not yet available (primary data) are to be
collected.
2. Availability of funds: When funds at the disposal of the
researcher are very limited, he will have to select a comparatively
cheaper method which may not be as efficient and effective as
some other costly method.
 Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in practice and the researcher
3. Time factor: Some methods take relatively more time,
whereas with others the data can be collected in a
comparatively shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the
researcher, thus, affects the selection of the method by which
the data are to be collected.
4. Precision required: Precision required is yet another
important factor to be considered at the time of selecting the
method of collection of data.