CHAPTER FIVE

RESEARCH DESIGN
5.1. What is research design
 Research design is the plan which specifying the
method and procedure for collecting and analyzing
information.
 It is the plane that specify the source and types of
information relevant to the research problem
 The researcher must design the way of selecting a
sample known as the sample design.
 It is the methods of selecting items to be observed
for the given study.
 sample can be defined as a group of relatively smaller
number of people selected from a population for
investigation purpose.
 The members of the sample are called as participants
While developing a sample design, the researcher must pay
attention to the following points.

1. Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample

design is to define the universe. The universe can be finite
or infinite.
 In finite universe, the number of items is certain(known).

Examples can be the population of a city, the number of

workers in a factory, etc
 But in case of an infinite universe, the number of items is

infinite. Examples for an infinite universe can be listeners of

a specific radio program, number of stars in the sky, etc.
2. Sampling Unit: A decision has to be taken
concerning a sampling unit before selecting sample.
 It is the set of element considered for

selection in some stage of sampling

 Sampling unit may be a geographical one such

as district, kebele, village, etc., or a social unit

such as family, school, etc., or it may be an
individual.
3. Source list: It is also known as sampling frame
from which sample is to be drawn. It contains the
names of all items of a universe (for finite universe).
 It is extremely important for the source list to be as
representative of the population as possible
4. Size of sample: This refers to the number of items
to be selected from the universe to constitute a
sample.
 The size of sample should neither be excessively
large, nor too small. It should be optimum.
5. Parameters of interest: In determining the sample

design, one must consider the question of the specific

population parameters which are of interest.
6. Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from
practical point of view, have a major impact upon
decisions relating to not only the size of the sample
but also to the type of sample. This fact can even lead
to non-probability samples.
7. Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must
decide the type of sample he will use. He must decide
about the technique to be used in selecting the items
for the sample.
 There are several sample designs out of which the
researcher must choose one for his study.
Obviously, he must select that design which, for a
given sample size and for a given cost, has a
smaller sampling error.
 5.2.Sampling design
 Sample design deals with the methods of selecting items to
be observed for the given study.
 A complete enumeration of all items in the population is
known as a census inquiry.
 when the field of inquiry is large, this method becomes
difficult to adopt because of the resources involved
 Undertaking a census survey, many a times, is not possible.
Sometimes it is possible to obtain sufficiently accurate
results by studying only a part of total population, technically
called samples
 The process of selecting samples is called sampling
technique.
 In sampling, the samples selected should be as
representative of the total population.
 5.3. Importance of Sampling

The following points summarize the benefits of studying samples.

1. There could be resource (time, finance, manpower, etc.)
limitations which would make it difficult to study the whole
population.
2. In some cases, tests may be destructive. For example, when
we test the breaking strength of materials, we must destroy
them. A census would mean complete destruction of materials.
In such a case, we must do sampling.

3. Sampling provides much quicker results than does a census.

When the time between the recognition of the need of information
and the availability of that information is short, sampling helps not
to miss the information.
4. Sampling is the only process possible if the
population is infinite.
5. There is also an argument that the quality of a
study is often better with sampling than with a
census.
 The basis of the argument is that sampling
possesses the possibility of better interviewing;
more thorough investigation of missing, wrong, or
suspicious information, better supervision, and
better processing than is possible with complete
coverage.
 Types and Causes of Incorrect Inferences in
Sampling
There are two causes of incorrect inferences namely
systematic bias and sampling error.
1. Systematic bias: Systematic bias results from errors in the
sampling procedures, and it cannot be reduced or eliminated by
increasing the sample size. However, the causes responsible for
these errors can be detected and corrected.
 Usually a systematic bias is the result of one or more of the
following factors:
 Inappropriate sampling frame:
 Defective measuring device:
 Non-respondents etc
2. Sampling errors: Sampling error occur when the
selected sample does not truly reflect the characteristics of
population
 Characteristics of a good sample design
Sample design must be
 result in a truly representative sample
 result in small sampling error
 be viable in the context of funds available for the
research study
 must enable to control the systematic bias in a
better way
 5.4. Types of Sample Design(methods)

 Sample designs are basically of two types-

probability sampling and non-probability sampling.
 Probability sampling is based on the concept of
random selection,
 whereas non-probability sampling is non-random
selection
 5.4.1. Probability sampling techniques
Probability sampling is also known as random
sampling or chance sampling.

The following are random sampling techniques

.
 Simple Random Sampling
 Under this method each unit in the universe has the same
chance of being included in the sample.
 Random sampling needs a ‘sampling frame’ or a ‘sampling
unit’,
 i.e. complete and up-to-date list of all members of the
population.
 For a homogeneous type of population, simple random
sampling is reliable.
 Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has
an equal chance of inclusion in the sample.
 Random sampling is considered as the best technique of
selecting a representative sample.
 Simple random sampling gives each element in the
population an equal probability of getting into the sample
and each possible sample combination has an equal
probability of being chosen
 One method for the selection of participants is lottery
method: each element is first given a number and then
numbers are individually written on slips of paper. The
slips are put and mixed thoroughly in some bag or bowl.
Then the decided number of slips is drawn out of it.
Systematic Sampling: : the most practical way of sampling is
to select every ith item on a list.
 An element of randomness is introduced into this kind of
sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with
which to start.
The following steps will help:
Assign a sequence number to each member of the
population.
Determine the skip interval by dividing the number of units in
the population by the sample size.
 I=P/S where I is skip interval, P is population size, and S is
sample size.
Select a starting point in a random digit table (it must be
between 1 and I).
 include that item in a sample and select every ith item there
after until total sample has been selected
 The advantage of this sampling technique is the
samples will spread evenly over the entire
population.
 It is also an easier and less costly method of
sampling and can be conveniently used even in
case of large populations.
 However, if there is a hidden periodicity in the
population, systematic sampling will prove to be
an inefficient method of sampling.
Stratified Sampling: If a population from which a sample
is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group,
stratified sampling is generally applied.
 This type of sampling method is used when population is
heterogeneous
 Under stratified sampling, the population is divided into
several subpopulations (strata) that are individually
more homogeneous than the total population and then
we select items from each stratum to constitute a
sample.
 Common criterions used for stratification are gender, age,
socioeconomic status etc .
 The participants are then selected from each stratum
through lottery method
 It needs a lot of efforts.
 It is costly and time consuming
The basic steps for stratified sampling are:
a) Divide the population to be surveyed in to strata of
similar study units or into areas with which similar
social, environmental, or economic conditions exist.
b) Make a separate and complete list of the stratum and
from each stratum draw a separate random sample of
study units using these lists.
c) A similar survey is then done on the sample of study
units in each of the strata
 For example, suppose we want to take a sample of size n=30 to
be drawn from a population of size N=800 which is divided into
three strata of size N1=400, N2=240, and N3=160.
 The sample size for stratum with N1=400 is n1=30(400/800)

=15.
 The sample size for stratum with N2=240 is n2=30(240/800) =9.

 The sample size for stratum with N3=160 is n3=30(160/800) =6.

Cluster Sampling:
This sampling technique is used when the
elements of population are spread over a wide
geographical area
The population is divided into sub-groups called
as clusters on the basis of their geographical
allocation
 In cluster sampling, the total population is divided
into a number of relatively small subdivisions which
are themselves clusters of still smaller units and
then some of these clusters are randomly selected
for inclusion in the overall sample.
 Area Sampling: If clusters happen to be some geographic
subdivisions, in that case cluster sampling is better known
as area sampling.
 In other words, cluster designs, where the primary
sampling unit represents a cluster of units based on
geographic area, are distinguished as area sampling.
 Multi-Stage Random Sampling

 Multi-stage sampling is a further development of the principle

of cluster sampling
 Suppose we want to investigate the working efficiency of
health stations in Ethiopia, and we want to take a sample of
few health stations for this purpose.
 The first stage is to select large primary sampling unit such as
regional states in country. Then we may select certain zones
in the second stage. Then we may again select districts
(woredas) and interview all health stations in the selected
districts. This would represent a three-stage sampling design.
 5.5.2. Non-probability sampling techniques

 It is called as judgment or non-random sampling

 The selection of the sample is made on the basis of
subjective judgment of the investigator
 Some of the major non-probability sampling techniques
are the following:
Judgment (purposive) sampling - The researcher uses
his judgment to select people that he feels are
representative of the population to have a particular
expertise or knowledge which makes them suitable.

Example: The purpose of a research is to investigate which

type of clothing middle age women prefer.
• The investigator visits a cloth market.
• There are many women in the place but the investigator
goes to only those women who appear of middle age
group and ask them to participate in his research.
• It is because the researcher had a purpose of doing such
a selection.
• He had set the criteria for his elements i.e. they should be
women, and should be of middle age.
Convenience (accidental) sampling –
 It is also called as accidental sampling or
opportunity sampling
 the most convenience population is chosen, which
may be the researchers friends, work colleagues or
students from a nearby college.
 This method is often used to save time and
resources.
 The researcher includes those participants who are
easy or convenient to approach.
 For instance the target population may be girls and boys,
men and women, rich and poor etc.
 Any member of the target population who is available at the
moment is approached.
 He or she is asked for participation in the research.
 If the person shows consent, the investigation is done.
Quota sampling- The researcher selects a predetermined
number of individuals from different group (i.e. based on age,
gender, etc).
 This type of sampling method is used when population is
heterogeneous i.e. every element of population does not
matches all the characteristics of the predefined criteria
Referral Sampling: it is called snowball or chain sampling.
 it is a non-probability sampling technique which utilizes some
form of referral, wherein respondents who are initially
contacted are asked to supply the names and addresses of
members of the target population
 The first participant is now asked to refer the investigator to
another person who meets the same criteria.
 the second participant approached is asked to refer the
researcher to another one. In this way a chain is made.
 This technique is useful in approaching the type of population
which is not readily available or lack of information.