MRT383 DATA AQUISTION & PLC SYSTEMS

Figure 1: Steps involved in Data Acquisition System

A data acquisition system is a collection of software and hardware that allows one to measure or control
physical characteristics of something in the real world
 MRT383 DATA AQUISTION & PLC SYSTEMS
Module I : BASICS OF PLC
No. of
No Topics
Lectures
1 Basics of PLC
1.1 Definition and History of PLC 1
1.2 PLC advantage and disadvantages 1

1.3 Over all PLC systems-CPU and Programmer/Monitors-PLC input and 1

output models
1.4 Architecture 1
1.5 PLC Programming language 1
1.6 Relay logic – Ladder logic – Programming of Gates 1
1.7 Flow charting as a programming method 1
1.8 connecting PLC to computer 1
1.9 PLC Troubleshooting and Maintenance. 1
Total Hours 9
• Definitions
• History of PLCs
• VERY Fundamental BD Essay

• Leading manufactures
• Features of PLC
• Merits and demerits of PLC
• Architecture of PLC
• 3 different types of architecture
• Details of each type of architecture and its BD
Essay
• Specialties of each type
• Comparison of the three types of architecture.
 What is Programmable logic controller
(PLC) ?
• The National Electrical Manufactures Association (NEMA) defines a PLC as a
“Digital operating electronic apparatus which uses a programmable memory for
the internal storage of instruments by implementing specific functions, such as
logic, sequencing, timing, counting, and arithmetic to control through digital or
analog I/O modules various types of machines or processes.”
• A PLC or programmable controller is an industrial computer that has
been ruggedized and adapted for the control of manufacturing processes, such
as assembly lines, machines, robotic devices, or any activity that requires high
reliability, ease of programming, and process fault diagnosis.
 Programmable Logic Controllers

• A programmable logic controller (PLC) is an industrial grade computer that is

capable of being programmed to perform control functions.

• The programmable logic controller is designed for multiple input and output
arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise,
and resistance to vibration and impact.

• Programs for the control and operation of manufacturing process equipment

and machinery are typically stored in battery-backed or nonvolatile memory.

• A PLC is an example of a real-time system since the output of the system

controlled by the PLC depends on the input conditions.
• The programmable logic controller is basically a digital computer designed
for machine control.

• Unlike a personal computer, it has been designed to operate in the industrial

environment and is equipped with special input/output interfaces and a
control programming language.

• PLC can perform tasks like switching, timing, counting, sequencing,

calculating, comparing and the processing of analog signals .

• PLC was used to replace relay logic.

• PLC eliminated much of the hardwiring associated with conventional relay

control circuits.
 What does a PLC do….

A PLC is a which receives signals from user supplied controlled devices, such
as sensors and switches, implements them in a precise pattern determined
by ladder-diagram based application, progress stored in user memory and
provides outputs for control of processes or user supplied devices, such as
relays or motor starters.
 History of PLC
• Dick Morley is considered as the father of PLC as he had invented the first PLC, the
Modicon 084 .The first PLCs were installed in industry in 1969.

• In 1970s PLC programmed with graphical representations for normally open and
closed relay contacts, pushbuttons, switches, relay coils, motor starters, valves
timers etc. were developed (ladder logic diagrams).

• In 1980s third-party software packages that worked with multiple PLC hardware
platforms became available. It reduced the cost.

• In 1990s development of human- machine interface.

• Now PLC has capabilities like vision system integration, motion control and support
for multiple communication protocols.
 Leading PLC Manufacturers
1. Siemens
2. Rockwell Automation / Allen
Bradley
3. Mitsubishi Electric
4. Schneider Electric
5. Omron
6. Emerson (General Electric)
7. Keyence
8. IDEC
9. B & R Industrial Automation
10. ABB
11. Bosch Rexroth
12. Hitachi
13. Phoenix Contact
14. Panasonic
15. LS Electric
16. Eaton
17. Delta Electronic
18. Yokogawa Electric
19. Toshiba
Country
PLC Manufacturers
Headquarters

Mitsubishi Electric (Melsec)

Hitachi Country
PLC Manufacturers
Omron (Sysmac) Headquarters
Toshiba SWITZERLAND ABB (B&R Automation)
Keyence FRANCE Schneider Electric (Modicon)
JAPAN
Yokagawa
Fuji Electric (Micrex) AUSTRIA Controllino
Panasonic Delta Electronics
TAIWAN
Idec Corportion Fatek
Koyo (Automation Direct) REPUBLIC OF LS Electric (LSIS)
KOREA RS Automation
Rockwell Automation (Allen Bradley) ISRAEL Unitronics
Emerson (GE Fanuc) Wecon Technology
Honeywell CHINA
AMERICA Kinco
Eaton (Cutler-Hammer) RS Enterprises
Velocio INDIA
General Industrial Controls (GIC)
Entertron Industries

Siemens (Simatic)
Bosch (Rexroth)
Beckhoff
GERMANY
Wago
Phoenix Contact
IFM Electronic
ecial Features( Advantages) of Programmable Logic Controlle
Reduced space: PLCs are completely solid state devices and hence are
extremely compact in comparison to hard-wired controllers where electro-
mechanical devices are used.
Higher Life and Reliability: These devices are extremely rugged. The
chances of defect/damage are very less as there is very lesser moving
mechanisms here.
Economical: As the defect probability is very less, one can consider it as
one time investment. In this way, PLCs are undoubtedly most economical
systems. Cost of PLC recovers within a short period.
Energy saving: Average power consumption is just 1/10th of power
consumed by an equivalent relay based control.
Easier Storage Archiving and Documentation: This is due to its
Ease of maintenance:
i. Modular replacement: Modular Plug-in construction, allowing easy
replacement or addition of units (input/output)
ii. Easy trouble shooting: Ease of programming and reprogramming in-
plant.
iii. Error diagnostics with programming unit: Easily understood
programming language.
Tremendous flexibility: There is no requirement of rewiring if any change
is required to be implemented. It can carry out complex functions like
arithmetic operations, counting, comparing, generation of time delay etc. It
has a very high processing speed and greater flexibility in both analog and
digital process. “On Line”/ ‘Off Line’ programming is also possible in it.
Shorter Project Time: The hard wired control system can be constructed
only when the task is fully defined. However, In case of PLC , the
construction of the controller and wiring are independent of control
 Advantages and Disadvantages of a PLC
Advantages:

 Many inputs and outputs, excellent for controlling and monitoring many
processes.
 Designed for industrial environments, very robust and reliable.
 Reprogrammable.
 Modular.
 Ideally suited to supervisory control.

Disadvantages of a PLC

 For simple applications where relay logic might suffice, using a PLC might blow out
costs due to the need to hire a programmer.
 Math functions in a PLC are quite advanced, but when it comes to doing large amounts
of complex math computations then an industrial PC might be better suited.
 Certain robotic and positioning applications may require extremely high speed
execution which may not be able to be achieved form a PLC.
 Can be expensive for automating an application with fixed parameters for mass
 Over all PLC System – Parts of a PLC

• PLC can be
1.Fixed or
2.modular type

• Main parts of PLC are,

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

2. The input/output (I/O) section
3. The power supply
4. The programming Device
Modular Type
Fixed Type
 FIXED TYPE MODULAR TYPE
Fixed I/O is typical of small PLCs that come in Divided into compartments into which separate
one package with no separate, removable modules can be plugged
units.
The processor and I/O are packaged together consists of a rack, power supply, processor
module (CPU), input/output (I/O modules), and
an operator interface for programming and
monitoring

the I/O terminals will have a fixed number of The modules plug into a rack.
connections built in for inputs and outputs.
The main advantage of this type of packaging it makes an electrical connection with a series
is of contacts called the backplane, located at the
lower cost. rear of the rack.

lack of flexibility The PLC processor is also connected to the

backplane and can communicate with all the
modules in the rack.

Great flexibility
 1. Central Processing Unit
• The processor (CPU) is the “brain” of the PLC

• Consists of a microprocessor for implementing the

logic and controlling the communications among
the modules.
• The CPU controls all PLC activity.

• User can enter the desired program in relay ladder

logic.

• The PLC program is executed as part of a repetitive

process referred to as a scan PLC scan starts with
the CPU reading the status of inputs, then the
application program is executed, then internal
diagnostics & communication and last updating
the outputs
2. The input/output section

• It forms the interface by which fi eld devices are

connected to the controller.

• This interface is to condition the various signals received

from or sent to external fi eld devices.

• Input devices such as pushbuttons, limit switches, and

sensors are hardwired to the input terminals.

• Output devices such as small motors, motor starters,

solenoid valves, and indicator lights are hardwired to
the output terminals.

• An optical isolator electrically isolate the internal

components from the input and output terminals. It
uses light to couple the circuits together.
Fixed and Modular I/O Configurations
 3. The Power Supply

• The power supply supplies DC power to

other modules that plug into the rack.

• For large PLC systems, this power supply

does not normally supply power to the
field devices.
4. Programming Device
• It used to enter the desired program into the
memory of the processor.

• The program can be entered using relay ladder logic

Instead of words, ladder logic programming language
uses graphic symbols that show their intended
outcome.

• Hand-held programming devices are sometimes

used to program small PLCs because they are
inexpensive and easy to use.
• A personal computer (PC) is the most commonly used programming device.
 What Is PLC Architecture?
• The term PLC architecture refers to the design of the various PLC hardware
and software components and how they interact with one another to form
the overall PLC system.
• The architecture of a PLC is based on the same principles of that used in
standard computer architecture.
• However, PLC architecture does differ because the design is based around
providing high reliability, immunity to harsh industrial environment, ease
of maintenance and access to large amounts of peripheral inputs and
outputs.
Closed architecture PLC system: It refers to a proprietary system of hardware and
software components that cannot (or is difficult to) connect to other manufacturers
components and software. Open architecture PLC system: It refers to the PLC system
as having off the shelf components that adhere to a common standard and are easily
connected to other manufacturer’s hardware and software components.
 The Basics of How PLC Architecture Works

• The heart of the PLC system is the CPU (Central Processing

Unit). It is made up of a control unit, processor and
memory.

• The CPU control unit manages the interaction between the

various PLC hardware components

• While the CPU processor handles all the program (eg. ladder
logic) execution.
PLC Architecture Block Diagram
 Types of PLCs
The general classification of PLC based upon the number of input and outputs is
 Fixed types PLC - In this type of PLC all the components of the PLC are as a single unit. The number of I/O
supported by the PLC is decided by the manufacture and cannot be changed.

 Modular type PLC - Modular PLC is divided by compartments into which separate modules can be plugged.

 Rack type PLC/ Distributed PLC - In Rack type PLC all the components of the PLC are as separated
modules and are assembled to form one unit by mounting the individual components on a rack. This PLC can support up to
thousands of I/Os.
There is also crossover between PLC types with some fixed type PLCs having modular
type features and some modular type PLCs having distributed type features.

• Fixed PLCs are used for smaller

sized, less complex application.
• Modular PLCs are generally used for
medium sized, more complex
applications.
• Distributed PLCs are used for large
sized, extensive application spread
across multiple location.
 Fixed PLC Type Architecture
 A fixed PLC employs single unit architecture where all the hardware
components are embedded into a single unit.
 Hardware components such as the power supply, CPU, memory, input,
output and communication interfaces are all are built into a fixed PLC.
 The most common names given to fixed PLCs by different manufacturers
are fixed, integrated, nano, micro, compact, small, mini, basic, unitary,
standard and brick.
Some examples of fixed PLC types by different
manufacturers and the terminology they use is shown
below:

Diagram of Fixed Type PLC Architecture

 Advantages of Fixed PLCs
The advantages of a fixed PLC are:
• Small in size so they do not take up very much space in an enclosure.
• Quick and easy to mount.
• Low in cost so they are an economical solution for basic applications.

Disadvantages of Fixed PLCs

The disadvantages of a fixed PLC are:
•CPU processing power is low and memory is small so complex tasks can be
difficult to realize.
•Inflexible because the number of input, output and communication
interfaces are fixed.
•Only suitable for basic applications with small number of inputs and
outputs.
 Modular PLC Type Architecture
• The main modules used in a modular type PLC are `
 A modular PLC has a separate module for
• The design of these modules will vary for different
each of its hardware components. Each
manufacturers and usually cannot be interchanged
PLC module is interconnected using a
between PLC manufacturers.
common mounting system. • Modular PLCs are used for automating industrial
 The mounting system has a certain
applications where a higher powered processor and
amount of modules that it can
large numbers of input and output devices are
accommodate.
required.
 This means a modular PLC can be
• These types of applications that use modular PLCs are
configured to be application specific.
usually associated with a higher level of complexity
with regards to operation, process control and
monitoring.

Diagram of Modular Type PLC Architecture

 What are the Advantages of Using a Modular PLC ?
 They have been specifically design to cater for medium to high end automation projects.
 Modular PLCs have lager memory, higher performance processors, larger number of input
and outputs, increased communication options, are fully customizable and are easily
expanded.
 The modular PLC can handle larger scale applications.
 Modular PLCs have the ability to have remotely mounted input and output modules
(distributed I/O) that are interconnected using a communication link.
 This allows for increase number of inputs and outputs, reduced cable requirements and
installation flexibility.
 In Modular PLC, each hardware component is separately housed in a module which can be
replaced if it is faulty.
Disadvantages of Modular PLCs
 Large in size so they take up more space in an enclosure than a fixed PLC.
 The mounting system is more complex than a fixed PLC.
 Higher in cost than a fixed PLC so may not be cost effective for smaller applications.
 Distributed PLC
 It is a high end PLCType Architecture
system with modular architectureand the capability to interconnect
hardware components across different locations via high speed communication links.
 Each location in the distributed PLC system contains multiple hardware modules that are
housed in a mounting system and are usually called a node, rack or drop.
 Each drop, node or rack in the Distributed PLC system must have a communication module
and can either contain a PLC processor module with input and output (I/O) modules or just
I/O modules.
 When there is a communication module with no PLC processor module and just I/O modules
then the node is called distributed I/O or remote I/O.

High speed
communication link
Architecture of a Distributed PLC Type
 Distributed PLCs are used for large factories and large processing facilities because they are
not limited to physical location.

 They allow hardware components to be located in different locations by utilizing high speed
communication links to interconnect processors and distributed I/O.

 The biggest differences between distributed PLCs and other types of PLCs is that
• They contain high performance processors
• Large memories
• Are able to handle large volumes of I/O
• Use higher level programming languages
• Can handle large amounts of complex process control tasks
 What are the Advantages of Using a Distributed PLC?
•Plant wide control network with multiple processors and remote I/O
drops.
•High performance processor.
•Large program and data memory.
•Able to handle large volumes of I/O.
•Can handle large amounts of complex process control tasks.
•Ease of maintenance.
•Save time and money on installation
Disadvantages costs.
of Distributed PLCs
• Large in size with bigger installation footprint.
• The mounting system is more complex than a fixed PLC.
• Higher in cost than other types of PLC so they may not be cost
effective for smaller less complex applications.
• Higher level programming skills may be required.
 PLC Types Comparison Table

PLC TYPES FIXED PLC MODULAR PLC DISTRIBUTED PLC

CPU Performance Low Medium to High High
Program & Data Memory Size Small Medium to Large Large
Power Supply Embedded Module Module
Input Interface Embedded Modules Modules
Output Interface Embedded Modules Modules
Communication Interface Embedded Modules Modules
Mounting System Single Unit Rack, Back plane,Rail Rack, Back plane, Rail
Physical Size Small Medium to Large Medium to Large
Flexibility No Yes Yes
Customizable No Yes Yes
Medium to high end High end applications and
Basic applications with small
applications with large plant wide control with a very
Applications number of inputs and
number of inputs and large number of inputs and
outputs.
outputs. outputs.
Cost Low Medium High
 Relay Logic
• Relay logic is a hard wired control system using switches, timers,
relays, motors and actuators.
• Traditional machine and process automation was accomplished
using relay logic.
• Automating a machine using relay logic requires a mass of wiring
and large number of devices to perform even the simplest of
tasks.
Some of the other problems with implementing relay logic are:
•Requires a lot of switchboard space.
•Installation is very labor intensive.
•Trouble shooting is extremely difficult.
•Modifications to the control functionality are complicated and
seriously tedious.
 • With the invention of the
microprocessor, it became possible to
Programme and store relay logic
control functionality in a computer.
• In the late 1960’s some really brainy
people realized this and pressed ahead
to create a device called
a Programmable Logic Controller
(PLC).
• Relay logic in a PLC is the method of
formulating logical expressions in
order to automate machinery and
processes in industrial applications.
The programming language that is
used to create relay logic in a PLC is
called Ladder Logic.
Relay Logic Panel
• To understand the difference between relay logic and ladder logic it’s really important
that you understand relay logic and how a relay works.
• Understanding relay logic is a good stepping stone to understanding ladder logic.
After all, ladder logic was originally derived from relay logic.

How Do Relay Logic Systems Work?

 Relay logic systems are a network of hard wired electrical components.

 The relay is the fundamental component and it works by switching electric circuits on
and off to form logic operations that in turn provide process control to the system.
 You can think of relay logic systems as a mechanical computer that does computation
with 1’s and 0’s by switching relays instead of using a silicon chip.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ca20ktPygY8
 What Is A Relay?
• A relay is an electromechanical device that consists of two basic
components,
 Relay coil
 Relay contact.
• It is an electromagnetic device used to separate two circuits
electrically and connect them magnetically
• The relay contact is used to switch a circuit on or off and the relay
coil is used
WhytoAre
change the state
Relays Usedof the
In relay contact.
Control Circuits?
 They are used to interface an electrical circuit, which works at a
low voltage to an electrical circuit which work at ahigh
temperature.
 That means relays can be used to connect circuits with
different voltage and current levels to control equipment
like motors and actuators.

 What Functions Does A Relay Perform?
Relays perform 3 main functions in an electric circuit:
 Allowing control circuits to switch a load circuit even if the
voltages of both circuit are different.
 Able to switch a high current device using a low current
electronic control signal.
 Relays can be wired in combination to perform logical
operations using a network of electric circuits known as
relay logic.

Electromechanical Relay Relay Coil With Contact Voltage & Current Rati
 Relay Operation
SPST Relay SPST Relay

Basic Relay Operation with Normally Open (NO) Basic Relay Operation with Normally Closed (NC)
Contact Contact

If a relay is wired to a normally open (NO) If a relay is wired to a normally closed

contact and the relay is energized then (NC) contact and the relay is energized
the contact will change state from OPEN then the contact will change state from
to CLOSED CLOSED to OPEN.
 Basic Relay Operation with Changeover Contacts Relay Operation with Changeover Contacts wired
wired Normally Open (NO) Normally Closed (NC)

If a relay with changeover contacts is wired in If a relay with changeover contacts is wired in
a normally open (NO) configuration and the a normally closed (NC) configuration and the
relay is energized then the contact will relay is energized then the contact will
change state from OPEN to CLOSD. change state from CLOSED to OPEN. Notice
that the wiring of the contacts has changed
sides.
 The basic format for relay logic diagrams is as
follows:
1.The two vertical lines that connect all devices on the
relay logic diagram are labeled L1 and L2. The space
between L1 and L2 represents the voltage of the control
circuit.
2.Output devices are always connected to L2. the output
device must be the last component before L2.
3.Control devices are always shown between L1 and the
output device. Control devices may be connected either in
series or in parallel with each other.
4.Devices which perform a STOP function are usually
connected in series, while devices that perform a START
function are connected in parallel.
5.Electrical devices are shown in their normal conditions. A
NC contact would be shown as normally closed, and an NO
contact would appear as a normally open device. All
contacts associated with a device will change state when
the device is energized.
 This figure shows a typical relay
logic diagram.
 In this circuit, a STOP/START station is used
to control two pilot lights.
 When the START button is pressed, the
control relay energizes and its associated
contacts change state.
 The green pilot light is now ON and the red
lamp is OFF.
 When the STOP button is pressed, the
 PLC Programming Languages
• A PLC program consists of a set of instructions either in textual or graphical form, which represents
the logic that governs the process the PLC is controlling.
• The International Electro-technical Commission(IEC) 61131-3 outlines 5 different PLC Programming
languages under two main classifications of PLC programming languages. They are,

 Textual Language  Graphical Language

 Instruction list  Ladder Diagrams (LD) (i.e. Ladder Logic)
 Structured text  Function Block Diagram (FBD)
 Sequential Function Chart (SFC)

Due to the simple and convenient

features, graphical
representation is much
preferred to textual
languages. https://www.youtube.com/w
atch?v=Qf32qtHfowQ&t=183
s
• Ladder Diagram (LD) —a graphical depiction of a process with rungs of logic,
similar to the relay ladder logic schemes that were replaced by PLCs.

• Function Block Diagram (FBD) —a graphical depiction of process fl ow using

simple and complex interconnecting blocks.

• Sequential Function Chart (SFC) —a graphical depiction of interconnecting steps,

actions, and transitions.

• Instruction List (IL) —a low-level, text-based language that uses mnemonic

instructions.

• Structured Text (ST) —a high-level, text-based language such as BASIC, C, or

PASCAL specifically developed for industrial control applications.
• Ladder diagram language is the most commonly used PLC language and is designed
to mimic relay logic.
• The ladder diagram is popular for those who prefer to define control actions in
terms of relay contacts and coils, and other functions as block instructions
 1) INSTTRUCTION LIST
• The instructional list consists of a series of instructions that refer to the basic
AND, OR, and NOT logic gate functions.

2) FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM

• Functional block diagram programming uses instructions that are programmed
as blocks wired together on screen to accomplish certain functions.

• Typical types of function blocks include logic, timers, and counters.

• The primary concept behind a functional block diagram is data flow.

• Function blocks are linked together to complete a circuit that satisfies a control
requirement.
• Data flow on a path from inputs, through function blocks or instructions,
and then to outputs.
 a. Textual Language
1. Instruction list
• The Instruction List language resembles Assembly Language.
• This language uses mnemonic codes such as LD (Load), AND, OR, etc.
• The Instruction List contains instructions with each instruction on a new
line with any comments you might want to annotate at the end of each
line.

Instruction List == ALP

Structured Text == High level language ( C, C++ etc.)
2. Structured Text
• Structured text is a text-based PLC programming language and is
similar to Python, Visual Basic, or C coding languages.
• Programming with structured text has multiple advantages, such as
the program requiring less space due to being text based instead
of graphic based.
• Additionally, the structured text can be combined with other
programming languages, such as creating function blocks containing
functions written in structured text.
 b. Software / Graphical Form Languages

 The PLC manufacturer typically determines PLC development software.

 AllenBradley, Siemens, and GE each have their own software
development platforms for programming their PLC models.
 Once the platform is determined, the actual programming of the PLC logic
can be done in a few different methods.
 The most common methods of Software / Graphical PLC programming
include

1.Ladder Logic
2.Function Block
3.Sequential Function Chart (SFC)
 1. Ladder Logic

• Ladder Logic is a graphical PLC

programming language and is
the most common method of
programming.
• Ladder Logic can be used to
execute tasks such as
sequencing, counting,
timing, data manipulation,
and more.
• Ladder Logic is structured
similarly to relay logic;
however, the physical
 2. Sequential Function Chart(SFC)
• Sequential Function Chart is similar to
Flowchart.
• Steps act as a major function in the program.
• These steps house the actions that occur
when the program executed.
• This decision can be based on timing, a
certain phase of the process, or a
physical state of an equipment.
• Transitions are the instructions that we use
to move from one step to another step by
setting conditions of true or false.
• Unlike traditional flowcharts, the Sequential
Function Charts can have multiple paths.
 3. Function Block
• Function block PLC programs are
represented in the form of
graphical blocks.
• Signals or data flow into the
function block from inputs
connected to the PLC.
• When the incoming signals or
data triggers the function block’s
pre-programmed function, the
PLC executes one or more
outputs.
• Function blocks can have
standard functions such as
PLC TYPE - SOFTWARE
USED

Allen Bradley - RSLogixs

Siemens - SIMATIC STEP 7

GE - Versa Pro

Honeywell - Soft Master

Mitsubishi - GX Developer

Schneider Electric - SoHVAC

Typical PLC input/output (I/O) system connections.
AND Functions

AND
gate.

AND logic gate digital signal

states.

AND logic gate operates similarly to control devices connected in

OR Functions

OR gate.

OR logic gate digital signal

states.

OR logic gate operates similarly to control devices connected in

NOT
Functions
NOT function is most often
used in
conjunction with an AND gate.

NOT
gate.

NOT function constructed using a normally closed

pushbutton.
 Boolean Algebra
There are many applications where Boolean algebra could be applied to
solving PLC programming problems.

Boolean algebra as related to AND, OR, and NOT

functions.
Y = AB + C

Y = AB + C
 What Is a Ladder Diagram?
• Ladder diagrams are advanced schematics widely used to record logic
structures for industrial controls.
• These are called ladder diagrams because they mimic a ladder, with two vertical
rails (supply power) and as many "rungs" (horizontal lines) as there are to
represent control circuits.
• The load device (lamp, relay coil, solenoid coil, etc.) is drawn almost always on
the right-hand side of the rung in ladder diagrams.
• Although it doesn't matter electrically where the relay coil is within the rung, it
does matter that the end of the power supply of the ladder is grounded, for stable
operation.
 Benefits of Using a Ladder Diagram
•Intuitive and self-documenting. A ladder diagram provides superb schematic
interpretation focused on well-understood principles of circuit architecture.
•The learning curve to get going with a ladder diagram is very small because
of the accessibility of the environment; simple programming skills grow
rapidly.
•This has made the ladder diagram especially common for applications that
involve staff without technical experience to repair or manage, like certain
electricians or plant technicians.
•The ladder diagram is intended to replicate electrical circuits, it is a perfect
way of reflecting abstract logic of course. A ladder diagram is pretty intuitive
for digital logic.
 Why Is a Ladder Diagram Used for PLC
Programming?
• Ladder logic is a programming language used for PLC (Programmable
Logic Controller) programming.
• It is a graphical PLC programming language which uses ladder
diagrams to express logic operations with symbolic notation, much
like the rails and rungs of a typical relay logic circuit.
• In order to bring industrial automation applications, it is used by
engineers and electricians to execute mathematical, linear, measuring,
pacing, and arithmetic functions.
• It is a common process from which to program a PLC.
• Ladder logic programming is still used now since the basic concepts of
system and process control are still the same.
 LADDER DIAGRAM SYMBOLS

Coil

1 or 0
Real or Negative
Tall or Low
On or Off
Yes or No

• The ladder logic uses symbolic expressions and a graphical

editor to write and read ladder diagrams which make it
easier for us to understand.
• If we convert a real-life occurrence into ladder language we
will symbolically articulate it in the form of a typically open
communication (NO).
• This occurrence may be anything like clicking a button or
triggering a limit shift.
Ladder diagram: basic symbols

Ladder diagram: bit logic instructions

OR

AND
 How to Create a Ladder Diagram
• The rails in a ladder diagram depict the supply wires of a
regulating relay logic circuit.
• On the left line, there is a positive voltage supply track, and on
the right side, a negative voltage track.
• In a ladder diagram, the logic flow is from the left-hand rail to
the right-hand rail.
• There are seven fundamental aspects of a ladder diagram
which are important to learn when applying a ladder logic
system in a PLC.
• They are names and statements concerning lines, rungs,
inputs, outputs, logic expressions, address notation/tag names.
Some of these are essential, and some are optional. LADDER DIAGRAM
•Rails In a ladder diagram there are two rails which are drawn
as vertical lines going down the foremost ends.
•Rungs The rungs are drawn horizontally and link the rails to the
statements of logic.
•Inputs The inputs are actual control acts such as pushing a
push-button or activating a cap switch.
•Outputs Outputs are electronic machines which are turned on
and off like an electric motor or a solenoid lever.
•Logic Expressions The logic expressions are used to formulate
the desired control operations in combination with the inputs
and outputs.
Motor stop/start relay ladder schematic

Motor stop/start ladder logic program.

Example 1 Two limit switches connected in series and used
to control a solenoid valve.

Example 2 Two limit switches connected in parallel and used

to control a solenoid valve.
Example 3 Two limit switches connected in parallel with each other and in
series with a pressure switch and used to control a pilot light.

Example 4 Two limit switches connected in parallel with each other and in
series with two sets of flow switches (that are connected in parallel with
each other), and used to control a pilot light.
Example 5 Two limit switches connected in series with each other and in
parallel with a third limit switch, and used to control a warning horn.

Example 6 Two limit switches connected in series with each other and in
parallel with two other limit switches (that are connected in series with
each other), and used to control a pilot light.
Example 7 One limit switch connected in series with a normally closed
pushbutton and used to control a solenoid valve. This circuit is programmed
so that the output solenoid will be turned on when the limit switch is closed
and the pushbutton is not pushed.

Example 8 Exclusive-OR circuit. The output lamp of this circuit is ON only

when pushbutton A or B is pressed, but not both. This circuit has been
programmed using only the normally open A and B pushbutton contacts as
the inputs to the program.
Write the ladder logic program, draw the logic gate circuit, and state
the Boolean equation for the two relay ladder diagrams
The Boolean representation of this PLC
program is:

ANSWER: C(AB’ + D’)

 Connecting PLC with PC
• PLC is linked with a PC computer through an RS-232 cable ,USB etc.
• In the case of CPM1A controller, one end of the cable is connected to a serial PC port (9-
pin or 25-pin connector), while the other end is connected to an RS-232C connector on
RS232 module.
• In order to establish a connection with a PC, DIP switch on the connector must be set in
"Host" position.
TROUBLESHOOTING & MAINTENANCE

 Troubleshooting Ground Loops

 Troubleshooting Indicator

 Troubleshooting Inputs

 Troubleshooting Outputs

 Troubleshooting CPU
 Troubleshooting Ground Loops
• It happens when two or more electrical paths exist in a ground line.
• the transducers and transmitter are connected to ground at the chassis (or device
enclosure) and connected to an analog input card through a shielded cable.
• The shield connects to both chassis grounds, thereby creating a path for current to
flow from one ground to another since both grounds have different potentials.
• This could create interference that would result in a possible misreading of the
analog signal.
• the shield should only be connected to ground at the analog input interface.
To check for a ground loop,
• disconnect the ground wire at the ground termination and measure the resistance
from the wire to the termination point where it is connected
• The meter should read a large ohm value
• If a low ohm value occurs across this gap, circuit continuity exists, meaning that
the system has at least one ground loop
 Troubleshooting Indicator
• LED status indicators can provide much information about field devices, wiring,
and I/O modules.

• Most input/output modules have at least a single indicator—input modules

normally have a power indicator, while output modules normally have a logic
indicator.

• LED indicators greatly assist the troubleshooting process with power and logic
indicators, the user can immediately pinpoint a malfunctioning module or circuit.

• they serve as preliminary signs of system malfunctions.

 Troubleshooting Inputs
• If the field device connected to an input module does not seem to turn ON, a
problem may exist somewhere between the L1 connection and the terminal
connection to the module.
• An input module’s status indicators can provide information about the field device,
the module, and the field device’s wiring to the module that will help pinpoint the
problem.
• To further pinpoint the problem, check that voltage is present at the field device.
• With the device activated, measure the voltage across the device using a
voltmeter.
• If no voltage is present on the load side of the device (the side that connects to the
module), then the input device is faulty.
• If there is power, then the problem lies in the wiring from the input device to the
module. In this case, the wiring must be traced to find the problem.
 Troubleshooting Outputs
• PLC output interfaces also contain status indicators that provide useful
troubleshooting information.
• the first step in troubleshooting outputs is to isolate the problem to either the
module, the field device, or the wiring.
• After checking the module, check that the field device is working properly. Measure
the voltage coming to the field device while the output module is ON, making sure
that the return line is well connected to the device.
• If there is power yet the device does not respond, then the field device is faulty.
• Another method for checking the field device is to test it without using the output
module.
• Remove the output wiring and connect the field device directly to the power source.
• If the field device does not respond, then it is faulty.
• If the field device responds, then the problem lies in the wiring between the device
and the output module.
• Check the wiring, looking for broken wires along the wire path.
 Troubleshooting CPU
• PLCs also provide diagnostic indicators that show the status of the PLC and the
CPU.
• Such indicators include power OK, memory OK, and communications OK
conditions.
• First, check that the PLC is receiving enough power from the transformer to supply
all the loads.
• If the PLC is still not working, check for voltage supply drop in the control circuit.
• If the PLC does not come up even with proper power, then the problem lies in the
CPU.
• The diagnostic indicators on the front of the CPU will show a fault in either
memory or communications.
• If one of these indicators is lit, the CPU may need to be replaced
Write a program that can be used to implement control of the water level
in the storage tank. The latch and unlatch instructions form part of the
program.
Operation of the program can be summarized as follows:
• An internal storage bit is used for the latch and address rather than an actual discrete output address. Both have
the same addresses.
• The rung 1 Examine-on instruction addressed to the off/on switch prevents the pump motor from starting under
any condition when in the off (open) state.
• In the MAN mode, the rung 1 Examine-on instruction addressed to the low sensor switch allows the pump motor
to operate only when the low level sensor switch is closed.
• In the AUTO mode, whenever the high sensor switch is momentarily closed the Examine-on instruction
of rung 1 addressed to it will energize the latch coil. The pump will begin running and continue to operate until the
unlatch coil is energized by the rung 3 Examine-off instruction addressed to the low sensor switch.
• The pump running status light is controlled by the rung 4 Examine-on instruction addressed to the motor output.
• The low level status light is controlled by the rung 5 Examine-off instruction addressed to the low sensor switch.
• The high level status light is controlled by the rung 6 Examine-on instruction addressed to the high sensor switch.
THANK YOU