CHAPTER 3

3 Elastic Wellbore Stress Concentration

3.1 Stresses Around a Vertical Well
3.2 Compressive Wellbore Failure
3.3 Tensile Wellbore Failure
3.4 Detecting Wellbore Breakouts and Tensile
Fractures
3.5 Effects of Mud Weight and Temperature on the
Wellbore Stress Concentration
BY A-Hakiim
Elastic Wellbore Stress Concentration refers to
the increased stress levels that occur around a borehole due to the presence
of the hole itself, particularly in an elastic material. This phenomenon can
lead to rock failure and drilling difficulties.
Elastic wellbore stress concentration refers to the phenomenon where
stresses around a borehole (or wellbore) become significantly higher than
the remote (or far-field) stresses due to the presence of the hole, particularly
at the edges of the wellbore.
Stress concentration around the wellbore can create breakouts, fractures, or
failures. Understanding the stresses on rocks around wellbores is important
to well design.
Stress Concentration:
When a hole is drilled into a material, the stresses around the hole are no
longer uniform. Instead, they become concentrated at the edges of the hole,
leading to higher stresses in those areas.
 Factors Influencing Stress Concentration:
The magnitude of the stress concentration depends on factors like the shape
and size of the hole, the material properties, and the applied stress.
Wellbore Stress Concentration:
In the context of wellbores, this means that the stresses around the wellbore
wall can become significantly higher than the stresses in the surrounding rock
formation.
Consequences:
High stress concentrations can lead to various problems, including:
Wellbore Instability: If the stresses exceed the rock's strength, the wellbore
may become unstable, leading to breakouts, sloughing, or even collapse.
Drilling Difficulties: Instability can make drilling operations more
challenging and potentially hazardous.
Fracture Propagation: Stress concentrations can also initiate or propagate
fractures in the surrounding rock, which can impact well performance and
reservoir integrity.
 Mitigation:
Understanding and managing wellbore stress concentration is crucial for
successful drilling and well design. Methods to mitigate stress concentration
include:
Optimizing Drilling Fluid Density: Using appropriate drilling fluid
densities can help to maintain wellbore stability and reduce stress
concentrations.
Careful Wellbore Trajectory Selection: Choosing well trajectories that
minimize stress concentrations can improve well stability.
Managing Bottom Hole Pressure: Careful management of bottom hole
pressure can help to prevent wellbore instability and fracture propagation.
Stress Concentration Factor:
The stress concentration factor (K) is a dimensionless value that quantifies
the degree of stress concentration. It is calculated as the ratio of the maximum
stress at the edge of the hole to the average stress in the remote area.
Elastic Anisotropy:
The presence of elastic anisotropy (where the material's elastic
properties vary in different directions) can also influence stress
concentrations around wellbores.
Stress Orientation:
When a hole is drilled into a homogeneous, isotropic, elastic material,
the stresses around the wellbore are reorganized so that there is a greater
stress concentration in the orientation of the minimum applied stress
and a lesser stress concentration in the orientation of the maximum
applied stress.
 3.1 Stresses Around a Vertical Well
Stresses Around a vertical well, stresses are characterized by radial, hoop
(tangential), and axial (vertical) stresses, with the radial stress being
equal to the internal borehole pressure and the hoop stress varying
around the wellbore, being greatest where the minimum horizontal stress
is.
These are described as radial stress, σr; tangential stress (circumferential
or hoop stress), σt; and axial stress, σa. The radial stress acts in all
directions perpendicular to the wellbore wall; the tangential stress circles
the borehole, and the axial stress acts parallel to the wellbore.
Radial Stress (σrr):
This stress acts perpendicular to the wellbore wall at all points and is
equal to the internal borehole pressure (or mud weight).
Hoop Stress (σθθ):
This stress acts tangent to the wellbore wall at all points and varies around
the wellbore.
Axial Stress (σzz):
In a vertical well, this stress acts along the length of the wellbore (i.e., the
vertical stress).
In-situ stresses:
The stresses around a vertical well are influenced by the in-situ stresses,
which are the stresses that exist in the rock mass before drilling, including
vertical stress (σv), maximum horizontal stress (SHmax), and minimum
horizontal stress (Shmin).
Breakouts:
In a vertical well, breakouts (cracks or fractures) tend to develop
symmetrically along the direction of the minimum horizontal stress (Shmin)
due to the compressive hoop stress being greatest in that direction.
Wellbore Stability:
The interplay between in-situ stresses, rock strength, and the weight of
drilling mud is crucial for wellbore stability, and if the mud weight is
insufficient to suppress stress concentration, stress-induced compressive
wellbore failure, like breakouts, can develop.
Effective Stress:
The effective stress at the wellbore wall is influenced by the pore
pressure and the in-situ stresses.
Mud Weight:
Proper mud weight can balance excessive pore pressure and reduce or
avoid tensile radial stress, preventing borehole spalling or instability,
especially during underbalanced drilling.
 3.2 Compressive Wellbore Failure
Compressive wellbore failure, or borehole collapse, occurs when the
stress around a wellbore becomes too high, causing the rock to fail in a
shear-type manner, leading to wellbore enlargement. This can be caused
by factors like insufficient mud weight, high pore pressure, or low rock
strength, and can significantly impact drilling operations. Stress
Concentration:
Drilling a well into a rock mass creates a stress concentration around the
wellbore.
Shear Failure:
Compressive failure, or borehole collapse, is a shear-type failure where
the tangential stress (around the wellbore) becomes large, leading to rock
failure and wellbore enlargement.
Causes of Compressive Failure:
Insufficient Mud Weight: If the mud weight (pressure exerted by the
drilling fluid) is not sufficient to balance the stresses around the wellbore,
the wellbore can collapse.
High Pore Pressure: High pore pressure (pressure within the rock's
pores) can lead to tensile failure around the wellbore, especially in non-
permeable formations.
Low Rock Strength: Weak or unconsolidated rock formations are more
prone to compressive failure.
Inappropriate Drilling Practices: Drilling practices that do not
adequately account for wellbore stability can also contribute to
compressive failure.
 Consequences of Compressive Failure:
Wellbore Instability: Compressive failure leads to wellbore instability, which
can cause problems like stuck drill pipe, lost circulation, and difficulty in
drilling and completion operations.
Increased Drilling Costs: Wellbore instability can lead to increased drilling
time and costs.
Formation Damage: Compressive failure can damage the surrounding
formation, potentially reducing its permeability and productivity.
Preventing Compressive Failure:
Mud Weight Management: Maintaining an appropriate mud weight to
balance the stresses around the wellbore is crucial.
Formation Strength Assessment: Understanding the rock's strength and its
susceptibility to failure is essential.
Drilling Fluid Design: Using drilling fluids that are compatible with the
formation and can maintain wellbore stability is important.
Wellbore Stability Analysis: Using geo-mechanical models and other
tools to predict and prevent wellbore failures.
Wellbore Stability Analysis:
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion: This is a common model used to
predict wellbore failure.
Breakout Pressure: The pressure at which the wellbore is likely to
experience breakouts (enlargement and elongation in a preferential
direction) is an important parameter in wellbore stability analysis.
Caliper Logs: Caliper logs, which measure the wellbore diameter, can be
used to identify breakouts and other signs of wellbore instability.
 3.3 Tensile Wellbore Failure
Tensile wellbore failure, also known as wellbore tensile fractures or open-
mode fractures, occurs when the minimum principal stress on the wellbore
wall exceeds the tensile strength of the rock, causing the wellbore to fracture
or split.
Initiation of tensile failure from a wellbore, in general, may take alternative
geometries including penny-shaped, transverse, or slanted. The fracture
plane of the latter geometry forms a positive but less than right angle with
wellbore axis.
Tensile failure happens when the rock around a wellbore is subjected to
tensile stress (pulling or stretching forces) that exceeds its ability to
withstand it.
 Causes Tensile Wellbore Failure:
High pore pressure: If the pressure of fluids within the rock (pore pressure) is
too high, it can create tensile stress on the wellbore wall, especially if the mud
weight (pressure of the drilling fluid) is insufficient to balance the pressure.
Low rock strength: Rocks with low tensile strength are more prone to failure
under tensile stress.
Drilling-induced stresses: Drilling itself can introduce stresses into the rock
mass, and if these stresses are not managed properly, they can lead to tensile
failure.
Wellbore enlargements: Enlarging the wellbore can also increase the stress
concentration around the wellbore, making it more susceptible to tensile
failure.
Temperature changes: Temperature changes during drilling can also
contribute to tensile failure, as the rock cools and contracts, creating tensile
stresses.
 Consequences:
Wellbore instability: Tensile fractures can lead to wellbore instability,
causing the wellbore to collapse or become irregular.
Lost circulation: Tensile fractures can create pathways for drilling fluids to
escape into the formation, leading to lost circulation.
Drilling problems: Wellbore instability and lost circulation can lead to
various drilling problems, including stuck pipe, casing problems, and
increased drilling costs.
Remediation:
Mud weight management: Maintaining an appropriate mud weight to
balance the pore pressure can help prevent tensile failure.
Fracture treatment: In some cases, fracture treatment with Lost Circulation
Material (LCM) can be used to seal fractures and prevent fluid loss.
Wellbore stability analysis: Conducting wellbore stability analysis during
the planning stage can help identify potential problems and implement
appropriate solutions.
 3.4 Detecting Wellbore Breakouts and
Tensile Fractures
Wellbore breakouts and drilling-induced tensile fractures can be
detected using borehole imaging tools, which reveal them as distinct
patterns of low-amplitude zones or conductive zones on acoustic and
electrical images, respectively, aiding in the determination of in-situ stress
orientation.
Borehole Breakouts:
These are shear failures that occur on opposite sides of the wellbore,
appearing as broad, low-amplitude zones in acoustic images or conductive
zones in electrical images.
They are typically perpendicular to the direction of the maximum
horizontal stress.
Breakouts can be identified using tools like ultrasonic televiewer images
(dark bands) and electrical image logs (out-of-focus areas).
Drilling-Induced Tensile Fractures (DIFs):
These are tensile fractures that occur parallel to the wellbore axis,
appearing as narrow, low-amplitude zones in acoustic images or conductive
zones in electrical images.
They are typically parallel to the direction of the maximum horizontal
stress.
DIFs can be identified using tools like Formation Micro Imager (FMI)
logs.
Tools for Detection:
Acoustic and Electrical Borehole Imaging Tools: These tools provide 360°
views of the borehole wall, allowing for the identification of breakouts and
tensile fractures.
Four-Arm Caliper Logs: These logs can be used to measure the diameter of
the wellbore, which can help in identifying breakouts.
Distinguishing Breakouts from Other Features:
It's important to distinguish breakouts from other wellbore enlargements
like washouts (where the entire hole is enlarged) and key seats (caused by
pipe wear).
Breakouts are characterized by a pair of enlargements on opposite sides of
the wellbore, while washouts involve enlargement of the entire wellbore.
 3.5 Effects of Mud Weight and Temperature
on the Wellbore Stress Concentration
Mud weight and temperature significantly influence wellbore stress
concentration, with mud weight affecting hydrostatic pressure and
potentially causing fractures or collapses, while temperature impacts
thermal stresses and pore pressure distribution, potentially exacerbating
instability.
However, if mud weight increases too much it can cause tensile fractures.
High ECD can also reduce the drilling window and cause stability issues.
Cooling the wellbore decreases hoop stress and can stabilize the hole if
hoop stress is high, but excessive cooling may lower the fracture gradient
and cause fracturing.
Mud Weight and Hydrostatic Pressure:
Mud Weight's Role:
Mud weight, or the density of the drilling fluid, is crucial for controlling
Hydrostatic Pressure and Formation Pressure:
The hydrostatic pressure exerted by the mud must be sufficient to prevent
formation fluids from entering the wellbore, but not so high that it causes
fractures in the formation.
Improper Mud Weight and Failure:
Too High Mud Weight: Can lead to fractures in the formation, causing
mud loss and potentially pipe sticking.
Too Low Mud Weight: Can result in wellbore collapse or breakouts (shear
failure).
Mud Weight and Stress:
The mud weight influences the stress distribution around the wellbore,
and the critical mud weight window is the range of mud weights that will
prevent both fracture and collapse.
 Temperature and Thermal Stresses:
Temperature Differences:
The temperature difference between the drilling mud and the surrounding
formation rocks can induce thermal stresses.
Thermal Stress Effects:
Heating: Can increase the likelihood of breakouts and inhibit tensile
fracture formation.
Cooling: Can inhibit breakouts and increase the likelihood of tensile wall
fractures.
Pore Pressure Distribution:
Temperature fluctuations can also impact the distribution of pore pressure
around the wellbore.
Thermal Effects in Geothermal Drilling:
In geothermal drilling, the drilling fluid is often cooler than the wellbore
wall temperature, which can lead to tensile thermal stress conditions around
the borehole.
 Combined Effects and Wellbore Stability:
Wellbore Instability:
Wellbore instability is a major problem in drilling, and both mechanical (related
to stress and rock strength) and chemical/thermal effects (related to fluid
interactions) can contribute to it.
Optimizing Drilling Fluids:
Understanding the combined effects of mud weight, temperature, and other
factors is crucial for optimizing drilling fluid parameters and ensuring wellbore
stability, especially in high-pressure, high-temperature environments.
Modeling Wellbore Stability:
Wellbore stability models often incorporate thermal stresses to predict the risk of
instability.
Field Evidence:
Field evidence indicates that thermal and chemical regimes in the wellbore
considerably affect wellbore stability.