Wireless

Communication
Introduction to Cellular Networks

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF CELLULAR COMMUNICATIONS

• Just look around you, and you will discover how cellular communications have influenced our
day-to-day lives
• While waiting in the airport lounge before boarding a flight, we can respond to email and browse
the Internet to read the news
• We can place an order for food while on the move, and the food will be ready to be picked up by
the time we reach the restaurant
• Our friends and family members can receive high-quality digital pictures from us when we send
them our vacation pictures
• Emerging cellular technologies will enable numerous users to simultaneously experience different
types of services such as high-definition video streaming and interactive video gaming

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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A Really Brief History of Communications
• 1837 William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone obtain a patent on studies.
the telegraph.
• 1972 Bell Labs patents its mobile communications system
• Samuel Morse publicly demonstrates the telegraph. (3663762).
1876 Alexander Graham Bell and Elisha Gray independently
invented the telephone. Bell was awarded priority because he 1972. Motorola introduces a small mobile phone, DynaTAC.
filed for a patent a few hours earlier than Gray. (What a 1973.Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn introduced Transmission
difference a few hours can make! Just ask those around you, Control Protocol use the term Internet for the first time.
"Who invented the telephone?" and see who is named!)
• 1977 Experimental cellular systems are launched in Chicago,
• 1935 Edwin Armstrong invents frequency modulation. Washington,
• 1940s Pre-cellular mobile phone service appears • 1979: A microwave telephone system was installed in Saudi
• 1947 The cellular concept is born at Bell Labs. Handoffs Arabia, and NTT installed the first commercial cellular system
between transmitters occur and frequencies are reused. in Tokyo.

• 1949 Claude Shannon's paper "Communication in the Presence • 1983 Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS), the world's first
of Noise" [9] is published. standardized and fully automated commercial cellular service, is
deployed in Chicago.
• 1958 Jack Kilby invents an integrated circuit.
• 1997 The term smartphone is used for the first time.
• 1963 Bolt, Beranek and Newman company (later to become
BBN Technologies) develops the first modem.
• 1968 Y. Okumura publishes radio frequency (RF) propagation

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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Frequency Spectrum Allocation
• Different countries may have somewhat
different spectrum allocations for cellular
systems
• This is true especially when the countries
have some spectrum occupied by entities
such as TV broadcasters and military
• Wireless communications rely upon the
frequency spectrum for communications
• The frequency spectrum is a valuable and
scarce resource
• The allocation of the frequency spectrum
is controlled by governments around the
world. For example, the FCC (Federal
Communications Commission) is in
charge of spectrum management in the
U.S and PTA (Pakistan
Telecommunication Authority) in Pakistan
Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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Frequency Spectrum Allocation
Examples of services include the following.
• Broadcasting: AM and FM radio broadcasts and TV broadcasts use the designated bands
• Radio Location: This spectrum is primarily used by the U.S. government for military use and
agencies such as NASA to assist in space flights
• Radio Astronomy: These bands are used for continuous observations such as the electromagnetic
radiation from the solar objects (e.g., the Sun and Jupiter)
• Meteorological Use: Various meteorological data collection and radiosonde operations occur in
these bands for weather forecasting
• Industrial, Scientific, and Medical Bands: These bands are designated for industrial, scientific,
and medical applications. They are also used for wireless access in homes and enterprises
• Aeronautical: This band is used by air traffic controllers for air-ground communication to control
commercial, private, and recreational aviation

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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Frequency Spectrum Allocation

• Maritime Mobile. These bands are used for ship-to-ship and ship-to-coast communications
• Land Mobile Radio. Various non-military federal agencies use these bands.
• Mobile Satellite. These bands are used by the military for training operations and for command
and control connectivity among ground, air, and surface and/or sub-surface mobile platforms.
• Cellular Communications Bands. Example frequency bands used by cellular communications
are cellular (around 850 MHz), PCS (around 1900 MHz), 700 MHz, and AWS (Advanced
Wireless Services, at around 1700 and 2100 MHz

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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Pre-Cellular Mobile Telephone Systems
1. The mobile telephone systems in existence before cellular
systems are characterized by autonomous and non-
interacting geographic zones
2. A base station (BS) with a large power amplifier and a tall
tower is used in a given zone. The figure illustrates such a
mobile system
3. Each zone is served by a set of frequency channels. In
Figure, the users in Zone 1 are served on channels fi, f2,
and f3, and the users in Zone 2 are served on channels f4,
fs, f6, and f7
4. Mobility across the zones is not supported, and the call
drops as the user moves from one zone to the next
5. As shown in Figure, User 1 initially communicates with
the BS in Zone 1 on f3
6. However, as User 1 moves toward Zone 2, the signal
quality degrades and the call drops
7. User 1 now has to re-initiate the call in Zone Dr.
2 Muhammad Asad Khan
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Pre-Cellular Mobile Telephone Systems
Major drawbacks
1. These pre-cellular wireless systems are
limited capacity (i.e., the maximum number of
users that can be supported) and lack of
support for mobility across regions
2. Since the number of channels is small, very
few users can be supported
3. Furthermore, the lack of coordination between
the adjacent regions prevents call continuation
as the user moves from one region to the next

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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CONCEPTS OF A CELLULAR SYSTEM
Network Architecture
• A cellular communication system provides wireless
communication services to users in geographical regions
called cells
• The cellular system establishes a wireless communication link
between the user device and a fixed infrastructure
• The radio access network (RAN) consists of BSs and BS
controllers (BSCs) (2G)
• The BSs are referred to as Node Bs in some technologies, and
the BSCs are called radio network controllers (RNCs) in some
technologies (3G)
• The BS provides a radio interface to the mobile user
• The BSC controls multiple BSs and allows mobility between
adjacent cells. The core network consists of a circuit-switched
core network and a packet-switched core network
Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan
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CONCEPTS OF A CELLULAR SYSTEM
Network Architecture
• The circuit-switched core network consists of components
such as the MSC (mobile switching centre) and interfaces
with the landline phone network such as the PSTN (public-
switched telephone network)
• The MSC controls the voice calls and performs functions
such as billing
• The packet-switched core network interfaces with the Internet
• A cellular service provider's system also includes a services
network that interfaces with the core networks to provide
special services such as prepaid calling, ring-tone downloads,
and voice and/or text messaging
• The only link that would always be wireless is the
communication link between the BS and the mobile device.
• The 4G system eliminates the BSC or RNC from the RAN
and replaces two distinct core networks with a single, unified
packet-switched core network Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan
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CONCEPTS OF A CELLULAR SYSTEM
Air Interface
• The air interface between the BS and the mobile station (MS) is a
critical design component in a cellular system
• Typical cellular communication frequencies range from 450 MHz
to 3 GHz, with widespread deployments around 900 MHz and 1.9
GHz
• At these radio frequencies (RFs), the communications occur by
line-of-sight and non-line-of-sight propagation
• A line-of-sight communication means that the BS antenna and the
MS antenna see each other directly with no obstacles between
• Non-line-of-sight communication occurs when the path between
the BS antenna and the MS antenna is blocked due to an obstacle
such as a building

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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Propagation Properties of Electromagnetic (EM) Waves
1. Speed of Propagation: EM waves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum
( approx 3*108 m/s).
• Their speed decreases depending on the medium's refractive index in different
media (like air, water, or glass).
Examples:
• Air: The refractive index of air is very close to 1, so EM waves travel nearly as
fast in air as they do in a vacuum.
• Water: Water has a higher refractive index (approximately 1.33) than air,
meaning EM waves travel slower in water than in air.
• Glass: Glass also has a higher refractive index than air, typically around 1.5,
further reducing the speed of EM waves.

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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Propagation Properties of Electromagnetic (EM) Waves
2. Reflection: When EM waves encounter a
boundary between two different media, they can
reflect off the surface.
• The angle of incidence equals the angle of
reflection.
• Reflection occurs when the wave bounces back
into the original medium

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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Propagation Properties of Electromagnetic (EM) Waves
3. Refraction: This is the bending of EM waves as
they pass from one medium to another due to a
change in speed.
• Causing a change in direction due to a difference
in speed in the two media.
• The degree of bending is described by Snell's Law.

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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Propagation Properties of Electromagnetic (EM) Waves
4. Diffraction: EM waves can bend around
obstacles and spread out after passing through
narrow openings.
• This property is more pronounced when the size of
the obstacle or aperture is comparable to the
wavelength of the EM wave.

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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Propagation Properties of Electromagnetic (EM) Waves
5. Interference:
• When two or more EM waves
overlap, they can interfere
constructively (amplitude
increases) or destructively
(amplitude decreases), leading to
various patterns depending on
their phase relationships.

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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Propagation Properties of Electromagnetic (EM) Waves
6. Penetration :
• EM waves can pass through materials, though the extent of
penetration varies based on the material's properties and the
frequency of the waves.
• Higher Frequency = Less Penetration: EM waves with higher
frequencies (like gamma rays and X-rays) generally have
shorter wavelengths and less penetration power.
• Lower Frequency = More Penetration: EM waves with lower
frequencies (like radio waves) have longer wavelengths and
greater penetration capabilities.

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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Propagation Properties of Electromagnetic (EM) Waves
7. Attenuation :
• Attenuation of electromagnetic (EM) waves, including radio waves, refers to the reduction in their intensity or
energy as they travel through a medium due to absorption or scattering.
• This weakening of the signal can be caused by factors like materials, atmospheric conditions, and the
frequency of the wave itself.
Materials:
• Concrete and Metal: These materials can significantly attenuate EM signals, hindering transmission.
Atmospheric Conditions:
• Atmospheric Gases: Gases like water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2), and ozone (O3) can
absorb EM radiation.
• Aerosols: Haze, fog, clouds, and rain can scatter and absorb EM waves, especially at certain frequencies.

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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Propagation Properties of Electromagnetic (EM) Waves
8. Polarization:
• EM waves can propagate in various polarization states,
including linear, circular, and elliptical polarization,
which affects how they interact with materials.

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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CONCEPTS OF A CELLULAR SYSTEM

Frequency Reuse
• As the communication signal propagates in
space, it experiences a loss in strength this
phenomenon is called Attenuation.
• At a distance far from the BS, the signal
becomes very weak. This seemingly simple
property allows the same frequency to be reused
many times throughout the system
• Consider a geographical region shown in Figure
1.5

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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CONCEPTS OF A CELLULAR SYSTEM

Cell Types
• The area where service is to be provided, the service
region, is divided into cells
• The size of the cell is specified by the cell radius, which
can range from less than 100 m to more than 100 km
• While no standard definitions exist for different types
of cells, Table 1.5 shows an example classification of
cells according to the cell radius

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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CONCEPTS OF A CELLULAR SYSTEM

Frequency Reuse
• A group of cells forms a cluster, within a cluster, no
frequency channel is reused
• The available frequency spectrum is reused in
every cluster.
• For example, assume that a service provider has
5.6 MHz of spectrum and that the service operator
has chosen a cellular standard in which one radio
channel requires 200 kHz of bandwidth
• The total number of radio channels that can fit in
the 5.6 MHz spectrum is 5.6 MHz -r- 200 kHz = 28
• Figure 1.6 shows the radio channels for the
example under consideration

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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CONCEPTS OF A CELLULAR SYSTEM
Frequency Reuse
• Let's distribute these twenty-eight radio channels
in seven cells - Each cell has four radio channels
• Consider Cluster 1 in Figure 1.7. Of the twenty-
eight channels, the first radio channel, fi, is
allocated to Cell 1 and the second channel, f2, is
allocated to Cell 7 -All twenty-eight channels are
used in Cluster 1
• The pattern of cells in Cluster 1 is repeated
throughout a geographical region
• For example, Cluster 2 in Figure 1.7 has the same
cell layout as Cluster 1
• Hence, channel fi is reused in Cell 1’( Note that
the same channel is reused in different clusters)
Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan
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CONCEPTS OF A CELLULAR SYSTEM

Reuse Distance
• Similarly, channel f2 is used in Cell 7 of Cluster 1 and Cell 1' of Cluster 2
• Such frequency reuse enables an operator to use the same spectrum many times in a region, thereby
saving significant capital
• Without frequency reuse, a service operator would require an excessive amount of spectrum for
which there would be no business case
• The number of cells in a cluster is called cluster size
• The inverse of the cluster size is commonly known as the frequency reuse factor (FRF).
• For example, if the cluster size is seven, the cluster has seven cells, and the FRF is 1/7

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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CONCEPTS OF A CELLULAR SYSTEM
Interference
• Consider user MS 1 in Figure 1.8
• The BS in cell C1 is sending the signal to MS 1
on the radio channel f1
• At the same time, BSs in cells C8 and C15 are
sending signals to the MSs (MS2 and MS3) in
their cells on the same radio channel
• Recall that frequency reuse is fundamental to
cellular communications; we must reuse the
channels!
• When MSI is trying to detect its signal coming
from BS1, the signals from the other BSs
propagate through the radio environment and
cause interference to MS 1
Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan
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CONCEPTS OF A CELLULAR SYSTEM

Interference
• The ratio of the received signal power, C, and the total received interference power, I, is called the
C/I ratio, which is the carrier-to-interference ratio
• The C/I ratio controls the quality of service (QoS), which can be quantified by the error rate
• If the C/I ratio is very low, corresponding to strong interference relative to the signal, the error rate is
very high and the user-perceived communication quality is poor
• If the C/I ratio is high, the signal is stronger than the interference, leading to a low error rate and
good user-perceived QoS
• Hence, maintaining a good C/I ratio is key to maintaining good QoS. One way to ensure a high C/I
ratio is to widely separate the base stations so that the interference signals are weak

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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CONCEPTS OF A CELLULAR SYSTEM

Sectorization and Its Impact on Quality

and Capacity
• When the BS transmits a signal for an MS from an
omnidirectional antenna as in Figure 1.8, the signal
energy or power is dissipated in all directions and
very little energy reaches the MS
• Another way to transmit a signal from the BS is to
use directional antennas instead of omnidirectional
antennas
• When 120° sectorization is used, one cell that
usually covers 360° is divided into three 120°
regions called sectors

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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CONCEPTS OF A CELLULAR SYSTEM

Sectorization and Its Impact on Quality and

Capacity
• When the BS transmits a signal for an MS from an
omnidirectional antenna as in Figure 1.8, the signal
energy or power is dissipated in all directions and very
little energy reaches the MS
• Another way to transmit a signal from the BS is to use
directional antennas instead of omnidirectional
antennas
• When 120° sectorization is used, one cell that usually
covers 360° is divided into three 120° regions called
sectors

Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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CONCEPTS OF A CELLULAR SYSTEM
Sectorization and Its Impact on Quality and Capacity
• The figure shows an example of 120° sectorization where each
hexagon now represents a sector Fig A
• For example, Cell 1 controlled by the base station BS1 is
divided into three sectors ⍺1, β1, and Ɣ1
• Similarly, Cell 2 consists of three sectors,⍺2, β2 and Ɣ2
• When 60° sectorization is used, one cell comprises six
sectors, with each sector covering a 60° region
• One cell that contains one or more sectors is usually
controlled by one physical BS
• In Figure A, six first-tier BSs cause co-channel interference to MS 1 in
Cell 1, these BSs include BS2 through BS7
• However, MSI experiences co-channel interference from only two
first-tier BSs, BS2 and BS7
• In other words, 120° sectorization reduces the number of co-channel
interferers from six (for omnidirectional cells) to two. With 60° Fig B
sectorization, the number of co-channel interferers is just one
Dr. Muhammad Asad Khan

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