Topic 1: Foundations to ESS

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Topic 1 Contents Page (with links to slides)
● 1.1 - Environmental Value Systems
● 1.2 - Systems and Models
● 1.3 - Energy and Equilibria
● 1.4 - Sustainability
● 1.5 - Humans and Pollution
1.1 - Environmental Value Systems
Environmental Movement and Influence
What is the environmental movement?

● EM originated in 1960s although people have been concerned

before

Who has influence over our ‘norms of behaviour’?

- Influential individuals (eg Greta Thunberg)

- Governments
- Businesses
- Pressure groups (eg Extinction Rebellion)
- Intergovernmental organisations (eg UN)
Environmental Movement - Major Events
Agenda 21: plan of action to achieve Copenhagen (Cop-15): bringing together
sustainable development to combat the majority of world’s leaders to consider
environmental damage climate change and listing mitigation
actions for developed and developing
☆ An Inconvenient Truth: illustrated talk countries
on climate aimed at alerting public to
increased global warming James Lovelock’s Gaia: gaia hypothesis
proposes that the earth is like a vast self-
Bhopal 1984: gas leak UCIC pesticide regulating organism
plant. Ground and water were polluted.
500,000 exposed, 20,000 died Johannesburg World Summit on
Sustainable Development: opportunity to
☆ Chernobyl 1986: result of a flawed strengthen world views on sustainable
reactor design that was operated with development, 20,000 people attended
inadequately trained personnel
Environmental Movement - Major Events
Kyoto Climate Change Protocol: ☆ Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring:
implemented objection of UNFCCC to environmental science book about use of
reduce greenhouse gases to quota level pesticides. It won the NATO award. It
to prevent something inspired a revolution and led to the
nationwide ban on DDTs
☆ Minamata: disease caused by
methylmercury poisoning. Fish got Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior: french
mercury poisoning and humans ate these foreign intelligence in Auckland, New
fish. It drove victims insane Zealand. It sank because of French
nuclear weapons and people protested
Our Common Future: targets were
multilateral vision and interdependence of The Club of Rome: report limits to grow
nature that suggested that economic growth
could not continue as resources would run
☆ UN Earth (Rio) Summit: first UN summit out
to focus on sustainable development.
Environmental Value Systems
EVS: worldview/paradigm that shapes the way an individual or group of
people perceives and evaluates environmental issues

Inputs: education, experience, culture, media, religion

Outputs: interrelated premises, values and arguments, decisions,

evaluations

Spectrum of EVS:
Ecocentric Anthropocentri Technocentric
c
Ecocentrism
Ecocentric viewpoint - holistic ideal that put ecology and nature as
central to humanity and emphasise a less materialistic approach to life
with greater self sufficiency of societies

Limitations:

- Might not always be sustainable

- Not realistic
- Small effect overall
- Requires huge change to our lifestyle
Anthropocentrism
Anthropocentric viewpoint - humans must sustainably manage the
global system. This might be through the use of taxes, environmental
regulation and legislation. Debate would be encouraged to reach a
consensual, pragmatic approach to solving environmental problems

Limitations:
- Does not stop the problem
- Need to consider social/economic factors as well as environmental
- Relies on good ethical management
Technocentrism
Technocentric viewpoint - technological developments can provide
solutions to environmental problems. Consequence of optimistic view of
humans. Play in improving whole of humanity. Scientific research is
encouraged

Limitations:
- Expensive
- Not available to all
- Too optimistic
- Technology might have negative effects
Intrinsic value: one that has an inherent worth, is irrespective of
economic considerations eg the view that all life on Earth has the right
to survive

It opens up to the possibility that nature has value even if it does not
directly or indirectly affect humans. It is viewed from an ecocentric
standpoint.
Examples of Worldviews
Communist/Capitalist Germany
● Communism is supposed to be for the workers, people and land
● But level of population was higher and rubbish collection was poor
● However good protection for farmers eg factories were not allowed on in Spring when crops are
growing

Native American
● Land is not owned but shared
● Small populations
● No money, just trading goods
● Spiritual connection with land

Christian/Muslim Regions
● God made Earth for humans to have dominion over
● Quran - Earth is a gift. Animals are equal

Buddhist
● All living things are equal and are dependent on each other
1.2 - Systems & Models
System: set of interrelated parts working together to make a
complex whole

Systems:
- Can be large or small
- open , closed or isolated (living systems are always open)
- Include materials and energy undergoing transfers and
transformations
- Models can help us understand systems

System emergent properties

Complex: Energy Exchanged
so the whole is greater Matter
than theExchanged
individual parts
open yes yes

closed yes no

isolated no no
Systems
Emergent properties: properties of a complex system that arise from the relatively simple
interactions of its component parts

A system is comprised of storages and flows.

Flows: provide inputs and outputs of energy and matter. They can either be transfers
(change in location) or transformations (change in chemical nature, state or energy)

Open system: exchange energy and matter across their boundaries (ie with their
environment) eg ecosystems

Closed system: exchange energy but not matter across the boundary eg atmosphere

Isolated system: hypothetical concept in which neither energy nor matter is exchanged
across the boundary
Models
A model is a simplified version of reality used to understand how a system works and to
predict how it will respond to change. It inevitably involves some approximation and
therefore loss of accuracy.

Advantages:
● Easier to work with than complex reality
● Can be used to predict the effect of a change of input
● Can be applied to other similar situations
● Can help to see patterns
● Can be used to visualise really big or really small things

Disadvantages:
● Accuracy is lost because the model is simplified
● If assumptions are wrong, model will be wrong
● Predictions can be inaccurate
Laws of Thermodynamics
Energy in systems is subject to the laws of thermodynamics

Laws of Thermodynamics
1. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred
2. In an isolated system, entropy tends to increase

More entropy = more disorder#

Efficiency = useful output / input

1.3 - Energy and Equilibria
Complexity and Equilibria
Most systems are very complex. This increases stability and allows the system to
withstand stress and change better than a simple one.

Equilibria: the tendency of a system to return to an original state following

disturbance. At Equilibrium, a state of balance exists among the components of that
system

Steady-state equilibrium: a characteristic of open systems where there are

continuous inputs and outputs of energy and matter, but the system as a whole
remains in a more or less constant state (eg a climax ecosystem)

Static Equilibrium: there is no change over time (eg a pile of books which does not
move)

Stable Equilibrium: system tends to return to an equilibrium after disturbance

Unstable Equilibrium: system returns to a new equilibrium after disturbance

Feedback
Feedback: modification or control of a process or system by its results or effects

Sometimes the processes/events in a system can have impact on the system by either
increasing or decreasing change away from the equilibrium. This is known as positive
and negative feedback.

Complex systems are more stable because if one part is broken or stops working, the
whole system will not stop working.

Negative Feedback: return it to its original state, stabilising as they reduce change

Positive Feedback: change a system into a new state, destabilising as they increase
change

Negative Feedback examples: population size of predator and prey species, control of
our body temperature by homeostasis, temperature sensor thermostats in buildings,
global temperature rising
Negative Feedback - Predator and Prey
Relationship
Resilience
Resilience: ability of a system to return to its original state after a disturbance

It is a measure of how a system responds to a disturbance, such as flood, fire, pollution, new climate,
disease, extinction etc.

A system is more resilient:

- the more complex it is
- With higher biodiversity
- With a larger ecosystem
- When species have faster reproductive rates and wider geographical ranges
- The more negative feedback loops in place

RECAP 1.3
1. Most natural systems are open systems
2. They mostly remain in steady-state equilibrium
3. After a disturbance, a stable system is more likely to return back to its original state
Tipping Points and Keystone Species
Tipping Points :
● Involve positive feedback eg deforestation = less rainfall = more forest fires = less trees
● Threshold is reached which means the ecology/biodiversity changed a lot
● Cannot precisely predict when tipping point is reached
● Changes are long lasting and hard to reverse

Examples of tipping points:

-lake eutrophication -extinction of a keystone species
-coral reef death
Tipping points are often reached on a local/regional level but not a global level

Keystone Species: species that plays an essential role in the structure, functioning or productivity of a
habitat or ecosystem
Examples: elephants from the savannah (they play an important role in a balancing natural ecosystem), a
pine forest (pine tree provides food, shelter etc and if they’re lost then the forest would be irreversible)
Having keystone species reduces resilience

Models are used to predict tipping points which have their advantages and see advantages (see slide)
1.4 - Sustainability
definitions!!
Sustainability: use and management of resources that allow full natural replacement of the resources
exploited and full recovery of the ecosystems affected by their extraction

Natural Capital: term used for natural resources that can produce a sustainable natural income of goods or
services

Capital: the means of production that are used to create goods that provide income

Natural Income: yield obtained from natural resources

Ecosystems: provide life-supporting services such as water replenishment, flood and erosion protection,
and goods such as timber, fisheries and agricultural crops

Sustainable development: development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
needs of the future to meet their own needs

Overshoot: occurs when the environment’s capacity and the limits to growth are exceeded
Millenium Ecosystem Assessment
Factors such as biodiversity, pollution, population or climate change may be used quantitatively as
ecological indicators of sustainability. Gender parity, gross domestic-product, life expectancy can be used as
socio-economic factors. These factors can be applied on a range of scales from local to global

Millenium Ecosystem Assessment → funded by UN in 2001. Researched how ecosystems have changed over
the last decade and to make predictions for how they will change in the future. Report in 2005 = natural
resources being used in a way which degrades them. Findings:
- 60% of ecosystems worldwide have been degraded
- 25% of land surface is cultivated
- We use 40/50% of all available surface freshwater
- 25%+ of fish stocks are over harvested
Suggestions:
- Remove subsidies to agriculture, fisheries & energy sources that harm the environment
- Encourage land owners to manage land a=to enhance eco services (carbon storage & freshwater
generation)
- Protect more areas from development, especially in the oceans
Environmental Impact Assessments
Ecological Footprint: model used to estimate the demands that human populations places
on the environment.

It’s an indicator of sustainability → if EF exceeds the area available then we are not
sustainable.

Environmental Impact Assessments

● Done before development
1. Identifying and quantifying possible impacts
a. Using a baseline study
b. Eg. how big is development
c. How sensitive is the area
2. Predicting scale of potential problems
3. Limiting the effect of impacts to acceptable limits (ie mitigation)

Disadvantages → there are different standard of EIA in different countries so comparisons

1.5 - Humans and Pollution
definitions!!
Pollution: addition of a substance or an agent to an environment by human
activity, at a rate greater than that at which it can be rendered harmless by the
environment, and which has an appreciable effect on the organisms within it

Primary pollutant: active on emission

Secondary pollutant: formed by primary pollutants undergoing physical or

chemical changes

Point source pollutant: from single, clearly identifiable site, it’s easier to
identify the source and manage
more...
Nonpoint source pollutant: numerous, widely dispersed, difficult to identify
sources so difficult to manage

Persistent organic pollutant: resistant to breaking down and remain active in

the environment for a long time

Biodegradable pollutant: do not persist in the environment and break down

quickly

Acute pollution: large amount at the same time, causing a lot of harm

Chronic pollution: long term release of pollutant in smaller amounts, often goes
undetected and is difficult to clean up.
Nonpoint Source Pollutants
● Release of pollutants from numerous, widely dispersed origins. For example,
gases from exhaust systems or chemicals on fields
● May have many sources and it may be virtually impossible to detect the
exact source
● Rainwater can collect nitrates and phosphates which are spread as infiltrates
the ground or as runoff on surface. This may travel lots of km before draining
into a lake/river and increasing concentration of nitrates and phosphates so
much that eutrophication occurs
● Air pollution can be blown hundred of km and chemicals released from open
chimneys mix with those from others

One solution is to set limits for all farmers and all industries to reduce emissions
and monitor
Point Source Pollutants
● Release of pollutants from a single, clearly identifiable site. For
example, a factory chimney or waste disposal pipe of sewage works
into a river
● It’s easier to see who is polluting (factory or house)
● It’s usually easier to manage as it can be found easily
Persistent Organic Pollutants
● Often manufactured as pesticides. They are resistant to breaking
down and remain active in the environment for a long time. They
bioaccumulate in animal and human tissue and biomagnify in food
chains and cause significant harm.
● Examples: DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane, polyvinyl chloride
● PCBs: widely used in electric apparatus and as coolants since
1930s but were banned in 2001.
● They cause cancer and disrupt hormone functions and have a
similar structure and action in animals to dioxin which is one of the
most deadly chemicals
Biodegradable Pollutants
● Do not persist in the environment and break down quickly.
● They may be broken down by decomposer organisms or physical
processes
● Examples:
○ Soap
○ Domestic sewage
○ Degradable plastic bags
○ Glyphosate
Acute Pollution and Chronic Pollution
● When large amounts of a pollutant are released, causing a lot of
harm
● Eg. chemical aluminium sulphate was accidentally tipped into the
wrong place in a water treatment works in Cornwall in 1988 or
Bhopal 1984

● Results from the long-term release of a pollutant but in small

amounts.
● This is serious as it often goes undetected for a long time, it’s
usually more difficult to clean up and it spreads widely
● Air pollution is often chronic causing non-specific respiratory
DDTs
● It’s used for agricultural insecticide and to kill anopheles mosquito
(vector for the malarial parasite).
● It’s cheap, persistent and effective
● It was banned in the US in 1972 and most MEDCs since but not
banned for public health use in most areas of the world where
malaria is endemic
● DDT prevented millions of deaths from malaria
● But Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring identified that it leads to
bioaccumulation