Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida

Algebraic Structures

UNIT-2

Discrete Structures
BCSE0204 Mr. Vivek Dubey
Assistant Professor
MCA, NIET

Vivek Dubey Discrete Structures Unit 2

04/05/2025 1
 Content

• Definition
• Operation
• Groups, Subgroups and order,
• Cyclic Groups, Cosets,
• Lagrange's theorem,
• Normal Subgroups, Permutation and Symmetric Groups, Group
Homomorphisms,

04/05/2025 Vivek Dubey Discrete Structures Unit 2 2

 Content

• Video links
• Daily Quiz
• Weekly Assignment
• MCQ
• Old Question papers
• Expected Question for University Exam

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 Unit Objective

• Classification and organization

• Understanding operations and properties
• Problem solving
• Abstraction and generalization
• Bridging different areas of mathematics
• Applications in computer science

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 Algebraic Structures(CO2)
 Algebraic Structures: A non empty set S is called algebraic structure wrt
binary operations *, if (a * b) S, for all a,b S.
 Here * is closure operations on S
 Ex: (N, + ),
 (Z, +, – )
 (R, +, . , – ) are algebraic structures

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 Operations(CO2)
 Commutative: Let * be a binary operation on a set A. The operation * is said to be
commutative in A
if a * b= b * a for all a, b in A
 Associativity: Let * be a binary operation on a set A. The operation * is said to be
associative in A
if (a * b) * c = a *( b * c) for all a, b, c in A
 Identity: For an algebraic system (A, *), an element ‘e’ in A is said to be an
identity element of A
if a * e = e * a = a for all a ∈ A.
 Note: For an algebraic system (A, *), the identity element, if exists, is unique.
 Inverse: Let (A, *) be an algebraic system with identity ‘e’. Let a be an element in
A. An element b is said to be inverse of A
if a * b = b * a = e

Pankaj Discrete Structures Unit 2

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 Groups (CO2)
 Groupoid: Let operation * is binary operation on set G and satisfies the closure
property then the algebraic structure (G,*) is called groupoid.
 Semi Group: An algebraic structure (A, *) is said to be a semi group if
1. * is closed operation on A.
2. * is an associative operation, for all a, b, c in A.
Ex. (N, +) ,(z,+) are semi group.
Ex. (N, .), (z, .) are semi group.
Ex. (N, – ) , (z, -) are not semi group.
 Monoid: An algebraic structure (A, *) is said to be a monoid if the following
conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation in A.
2) * is an associative operation in A.
3) There is an identity in A.

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 Monoid Example(CO2)
Ex. Show that the set ‘N’ is a monoid with respect to multiplication.

Solution: Here, N = {1,2,3,4,……}

1. Closure property : We know that product of two natural numbers is again a natural
number.
i.e., a.b = b.a for all a,b belongs to N
Multiplication is a closed operation.
2. Associativity : Multiplication of natural numbers is associative.
i.e., (a.b).c = a.(b.c) for all a,b,c belongs to N
3. Identity : We have, 1 belongs to N such that
a.1 = 1.a = a for all a belongs to N.
Identity element exists, and 1 is the identity element.
Hence, N is a monoid with respect to multiplication.

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 Cyclic group(CO2)
 Cyclic group:
 Cyclic groups are groups in which every element is an integral power of some
fixed element.
 A group G is called cyclic if for some element a belongs to G, every element is
of the form an where n is some integer.
 G = {an :n belongs to Z}
 and, G = [a], The element a is called a generator.
 If order of group and order of any element of that group is equal then that
element will be the generator of that group.
 Cyclic groups are Abelian.
 If a is the generator of Cyclic group G then a -1 is also the generator of group G.
 For an infinite cyclic group, there can be two and only two generators.

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 Group and Abelian group(CO2)
 Group: An algebraic system (G, *) is said to be a group if the
following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation.
2) * is an associative operation.
3) There is an identity in G.
4) Every element in G has inverse in G.

 Abelian group (Commutative group): A group (G, *) is

said to be abelian (or commutative) if
a * b = b * a a, b G.

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 Example of Abelian group(CO2)
The composition table of G is
. 1 –1 i -i
1 1 -1 i - i
-1 -1 1 -i i G = {1, –1, i, –i } is an abelian group under
multiplication.
i i -i -1 1
-i -i i 1 -1
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the elements of the
given set, the set G is closed under multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are complex numbers, and we know that multiplication
of complex numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 ∈ G.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of
1, -1, i, -i are 1, -1, -i, i respectively.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are identical.
Therefore the binary operation . is commutative. Hence, (G, .) is an abelian group.
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 Example of Abelian group(CO2)
The composition table of G is
. 1  2
1 1  2 G = {1,  ,  2} is an abelian group under multiplication.
  2 1 Where 1,  ,  2 are cube roots of unity. (CO2)
2 2 1 

1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the elements
of the given set, the set G is closed under multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are complex numbers, and we know that
multiplication of complex numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 G.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of
1 , 2 are 1, 2,  respectively.
Hence, G is a group w.r.t multiplication.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are identical.
Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.
Hence, G is an abelian group w.r.t. multiplication.

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 Sub-semigroup & Sub-monoid(CO2)
Sub-semigroup : Let (S, * ) be a semigroup and let T be a subset of S. If T is closed
under operation * , then (T, * ) is called a subsemigroup of (S, * ).
Ex: (N, .) is semigroup and T is set of even positive integers then (T,.) is a sub
semigroup.

Sub-monoid : Let (S, * ) be a monoid with identity e, and let T be a non- empty subset
of S. If T is closed and associative under the operation * and e T, then (T, * ) is called
a submonoid of (S, * ).

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 Sub groups(CO2)
Definition. A non empty sub set H of a group (G, *) is a sub group of G,
if (H, *) is a group.

Note: For any group {G, *}, {e, * } and (G, * ) are improper or trivial sub
groups ,others are called proper or non trivial sub group.

Ex. G = {1, -1, i, -i } is a group w.r.t multiplication.

H1 = { 1, 1 } is a subgroup of G .
H2 = { 1 } is a trivial subgroup of G.

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 Sub groups(CO2)
Ex. Let (Z, *) be an algebraic structure, where Z is the set of integers
and the operation * is defined by n * m = maximum of (n, m).
Show that (Z, *) is a semi group.
Is (Z, *) a monoid ?. Justify your answer.
Solution: Let a , b and c are any three integers.
Closure property: Now, a * b = maximum of (a, b) belongs to Z for all a,b belongs to Z
Associativity : (a * b) * c = maximum of {a,b,c} = a * (b * c) belongs to
(Z, *) is a semi group.
Identity : There is no integer x such that
a * x = maximum of (a, x) = a for all a belongs to Z
Identity element does not exist. Hence, (Z, *) is not a monoid.

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 Modulo systems(CO2)
Addition modulo m ( +m )
let m is a positive integer. For any two positive integers a and b
a +m b = a + b if a + b < m
a +m b = r if a + b  m where r is the remainder obtained
by dividing (a+b) with m.
Multiplication modulo p ( p )
let p is a positive integer. For any two positive integers a and b
a p b = a b if a b < p
a p b = r if a b  p where r is the remainder obtained
by dividing (ab) with p.
Ex. 3 5 4 = 2 , 5 5 4 = 0 , 2 5 2 = 4

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 Addition Modulo (+m ) (CO2)

The set G = {0,1,2,3,4,5} is a group with respect to addition modulo 6.

The composition table of G is
+6 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4

1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the
elements of the given set, the set G is closed under + 6 .

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 Continue.. (CO2)
2. Associativity: The binary operation +6 is associative in G.
for ex. (2 +6 3) +6 4 = 5 +6 4 = 3 and
2 +6 ( 3 +6 4 ) = 2 + 6 1 = 3
3. Identity : Here, The first row of the table coincides with the top row. The
element heading that row , i.e., 0 is the identity element.
4. . Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of 0, 1,
2, 3, 4. 5 are 0, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 respectively.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are
identical. Therefore the binary operation + 6 is commutative.
Hence, (G, +6 ) is an abelian group.

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 Multiplication Modulo (m ) (CO2)
The set G = {1,2,3,4,5,6} is a group with respect to multiplication
modulo 7.

The composition table of G is

7 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 4 6 1 3 5
3 3 6 2 5 1 4
4 4 1 5 2 6 3
5 5 3 1 6 4 2
6 6 5 4 3 2 1

1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the elements of
the given set, the set G is closed under 7 .

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 Continue…(CO2)
2. Associativity: The binary operation 7 is associative in G.
for ex. (2 7 3) 7 4 = 6 7 4 = 3 and
2 7 ( 3 7 4 ) = 2 7 5 = 3
3. Identity : Here, The first row of the table coincides with the top row. The
element heading that row , i.e., 1 is the identity element.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of 1, 2, 3, 4.
5 ,6 are 1, 4, 5, 2, 5, 6 respectively.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are identical.
Therefore the binary operation 7 is commutative.
Hence, (G, 7 ) is an abelian group.

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 Order(CO2)
 Order of an element of a group:
Let (G, *) be a group. Let ‘a’ be an element of G. The smallest integer n such that
an = e is called order of ‘a’. If no such number exists then the order is infinite.
 Order of group:
The number of elements in a group is called order of group.
 Ex: Group of order 1, 2 and 3
 G = {1, -1, i, -i} is a group w.r.t multiplication of order 4.
 G = ({0,1,2,3,4,5}, +6) is a group of order 6.
 G = {1, w, w2} is a group. Find order of its elements.

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 Homomorphism and Isomorphism(CO2)
Homomorphism : Consider the groups ( G, *) and ( G1, )
A function f : G  G1 is called a homomorphism if
f ( a * b) = f(a)  f (b) a , b 
G and f(a), f(b)  G1

Isomorphism : If a homomorphism f : G  G1 is a bijection then f is called isomorphism

between G and G1 .
Then we write G  G1

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 Example of Homomorphic group(CO2)
Ex. Let R be a group of all real numbers under addition and R + be a
group of all positive real numbers under multiplication. Show that the
mapping f : R+  R defined by f(x) = log10 x for all x  R is an
isomorphism.

Solution: First, let us show that f is a homomorphism.

Let a , b  R+ .
Now, f(a.b) = log10 (a.b)
= log10 a + log10 b
= f(a) + f(b)
 f is an homomorphism.
Next, let us prove that f is a Bijection.

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 Continue…(CO2)
For any a , b  R+ , Let, f(a) = f(b)
 log10 a = log10 b
 a = b
 f is one.to-one.
Next, take any c  R.
Then 10c  R and f (10c) = log10 10c = c.
 Every element in R has a pre image in R+ .
i.e., f is onto.
 f is a bijection.
Hence, f is an isomorphism.

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 Permutation Group
•A permutation is a bijective mapping or rearrangement of the elements of a set. For
example, given the set {1, 2, 3}, a permutation can be represented as (2, 3, 1), which
indicates that 1 is mapped to 2, 2 is mapped to 3, and 3 is mapped to 1.
•A permutation group is a group formed by a collection of permutations of a finite set.
The group operation is the composition of permutations, where the permutations are
applied one after another.
•The identity permutation, denoted as e, leaves all elements of the set unchanged and
serves as the identity element of the group.
•In a permutation group, every permutation has an inverse, meaning there exists another
permutation that undoes the mapping performed by the original permutation.
•The order of a permutation is the number of elements in the set being permuted. If the set
has n elements, the permutation group associated with it is denoted as S_n.

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 Symmetric Group
•The symmetric group S_n is a specific type of permutation group that consists of all
possible permutations of a set with n elements.
•In discrete mathematics, the symmetric group is often used to study the symmetric
properties and arrangements of objects, as well as combinatorial structures and their
symmetries.
•The symmetric group S_n has n! permutations since there are n choices for the first
element, n-1 choices for the second element, and so on, resulting in a total of n * (n-1) * ... *
2 * 1 = n! permutations.
•Symmetric groups have important applications in areas such as combinatorial enumeration,
graph theory, and the study of algebraic structures.
The study of permutation and symmetric groups in discrete mathematics helps analyze the
properties of permutations, explore combinatorial structures and symmetries, and
understand fundamental principles of group theory.

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 Cosets(CO2)
• If H is a sub group of( G, * ) and a  G then the set
Ha = { h * a, h  H}is called a right coset of H in G.
Similarly, aH = {a * h, h  H}is called a left coset of H is G.
• The index of H in G, denoted [G : H], is equal to the number of left cosets of H in
G.
• Note:-
1) Any two left (right) cosets of H in G are either identical or disjoint.
2) Let H be a sub group of G. Then the right cosets of H form a partition of G.
i.e., the union of all right cosets of a sub group H is equal to G.
3) Lagrange’s theorem: The order of each sub group of a finite group is a
divisor of the order of the group.
4) The order of every element of a finite group is a divisor of the order of the
group in particular am = e
5) The converse of the lagrange’s theorem need not be true.

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 Normal Subgroup(CO2)
• Let G be a group. A subgroup H of G is said to be a normal subgroup of G if for all h ∈
H and x∈ G, x h x-1∈ H
• If x H x-1 = {x h x-1| h ∈ H} then H is normal in G if and only if xHx -1⊆H, ∀ x∈ G
• Normal subgroups are also known as invariant subgroups or self-conjugate subgroup.
• A subgroup H of a group G is known as normal subgroup of G if every left coset
of H in G is equal to the corresponding right coset of H in G. That is, gH=Hg for
every g ∈ G .
• The normal subgroup is often denoted by using the symbol ► or◄. That is, if N is a
normal subgroup of G or N is normal in G, then it is denoted as N◄G.
• Quotient Group: A quotient group or factor group is a group obtained by aggregating
similar elements of a larger group using an equivalence relation that preserves some of
the group structure. It is denoted by Z/pZ, where p is an Integer.
• Quotient group is not a subgroup of G

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 MCQs(CO2)
1. In a group there must be only __________ element.
a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 5
2. _____ is the multiplicative identity of natural numbers.
a) 0
b) -1
c) 1
d) 2
3. The set of even natural numbers, {6, 8, 10, 12,..,} is closed under addition operation. Which of the
following properties will it satisfy?
a) closure property
b) associative property
c) symmetric property
d) identity property
4. If (M, *) is a cyclic group of order 73, then number of generator of G is equal to ______
a) 89 b) 23 c) 72 d) 17

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 MCQs(CO2)
5. A group G, ({0}, +) under addition operation satisfies which of the following properties?
a) identity, multiplicity and inverse
b) closure, associativity, inverse and identity
c) multiplicity, associativity and closure
d) inverse and closure

value of |M⋂N|.
6. Let G be a finite group with two sub groups M & N such that |M|=56 and |N|=123. Determine the

a) 1
b) 56
c) 14
d) 78

7. Let * be the binary operation on the rational number given by a*b=a+b+ab. Which of the
following property does not exist for the group?
a) closure property
b) identity property
c) symmetric property
d) associative property
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 MCQs(CO2)
8. Consider the binary operations on X, a*b = a+b+4, for a, b ∈ X. It satisfies the properties of
_______
a) abelian group
b) semigroup
c) multiplicative group
d) isomorphic group

9. If x * y = x + y + xy then (G, *) is _____________

a) Monoid
b) Abelian group
c) Commutative semigroup
d) Cyclic group

10. A function defined by f(x)=2*x such that f(x+y)=2x+y under the group of real numbers, then
________
a) Isomorphism exists
b) Homomorphism exists
c) Heteromorphic exists
d) Association exists
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 MCQs(CO2)
11. A function f:(M,∗)→(N,×) is a homomorphism if ______
a) f(a, b) = a*b
b) f(a, b) = a/b
c) f(a, b) = f(a)+f(b)
d) f(a, b) = f(a)*f(a)

12. Condition of semigroup homomorphism should be ____________

a) f(x * x) = f(x * y)
b) f(x) = f(y)
c) f(x) * f(y) = f(y)
d) f(x * y) = f(x) * f(y)

13. The set of rational numbers form an abelian group under _________
a) Association
b) Closure
c) Multiplication
d) Addition

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 MCQs(CO2)
14. If F is a free semigroup on a set S, then the concatenation of two even words is ________
a) a semigroup of F
b) a subgroup of F
c) monoid of F
d) cyclic group of F

15. The set of odd and even positive integers closed under multiplication is ________
a) a free semigroup of (M, ×)
b) a subsemigroup of (M, ×)
c) a semigroup of (M, ×)
d) a subgroup of (M, ×)

16. If a * b = a such that a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗ b = a and (a * b) * c = a * b = a then ________

a) * is associative
b) * is commutative
c) * is closure
d) * is abelian

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 Faculty Video Links, Youtube & NPTEL Video Links and
Online Courses Details (CO2)

Youtube/other Video Links

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dQ4wU0k7JKI&list=PL0862D1A9472
52D20&index=35
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=urd468CJCcU&list=PL0862D1A94725
2D20&index=36
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YB6CP1RUvgk&list=PL0862D1A947
252D20&index=37
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yDQhErltWUg

NEPTEL video link:

• https://nptel.ac.in/courses/111/105/111105112/

04/05/2025 Pankaj Discrete Structures Unit 2 34

 Thank You

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