Solutions to Non-linear Equations

Introduction
Dr. Umer Farooq Ahmed

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 Goals

After completing this lecture you will be able to know

 What is nonlinear function and nonlinear equation
 transcendental function and transcendental equation
 Various methods for solving Transcendental equation
– Bisection Method
– Regula-Falsi Method
– Method of iteration
 Numerical Examples of above methods
 Application of these method
– Where?

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 Root of an equation

In graph, the root (or zero) Various numerical methods for

of a function is the x- root-finding
intercept
The Bisection Method
The False Position Method
root Fixed point iterations
The Newton-Raphson Method
The Secant Method

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 Solution of an equation

 Graphically, as shown in Fig. 3-1, the solution is the point

where the function f(x) crosses or touches the x-axis.
 An equation might have:
– no solution
– or can have one solution
– or several (possibly many) roots.

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 How to find solution of an equation?

 When the equation is simple, the value of x can be

determined analytically (Direct Method).
– This is the case when x can be written explicitly by
applying mathematical operations, or when a known
formula (such as the formula for solving a quadratic
equation) can be used to determine the exact value of x.
 In many situations, however, it is impossible to determine the
root of an equation analytically.
– Can you give some examples of such equation?

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 Example

 For example, the area of a segment As of a circle with radius r

(shaded area in Fig. 3-2) is by:

 If we want to find theta, it can’t be explicitly written.

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 Methods

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 Graphical Method

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 Graphical Method

 Step 1: Rewrite f (x) = 0 as f1(x) = f2(x)

 Step 2: Determine the point of intersection of the graphs of y
= f1(x) and y = f2(x).
 Step 3: The first approximation to a root of f (x) = 0 can be
taken as the abscissa obtained in step 2
– Abscissa is the distance from a point to the vertical
or y -axis, measured parallel to the horizontal or x -
axis; the x -coordinate.

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 Example: Graphical Method

 Consider,
𝑓 ( 𝑥)=𝑥 −sin 𝑥 − 1=0
 It can be written as x – 1 = sin x.
 Now, we shall draw the graphs of y =(x -1) and y = sin x
 The approximate value
of the root is found to be
1.9

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 Example: Graphical Method

 Graphical techniques are of limited practical value because

they are not precise.
 However, graphical methods can be utilized to obtain rough
estimates of roots.

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 Example: Graphical Method

 Aside from providing rough estimates of the root, graphical

interpretations are important tools for understanding the
properties of the functions and anticipating the pitfalls of the
numerical methods.

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 Numerical solution of an equation

 A numerical solution of an equation is a value that

approximately satisfies the equation
 Example:

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 Overview of approaches in solving equations numerically

 The process of solving an equation numerically is different

from the procedure used to find an analytical solution.
 An analytical solution is obtained by deriving an expression
that has an exact numerical value.
 A numerical solution is obtained in a process that starts by
finding an approximate solution and is followed by a
numerical procedure/method in which a better (more
accurate) solution is determined.

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 Overview of approaches in solving equations numerically

 How we estimate/guess initial numerical solution of an

equation f(x) = 0?
 An initial numerical solution of an equation f(x) = 0 can be
estimated by plotting f(x) versus x and looking for the point
where the graph crosses the x-axis.
 It is also possible to write and execute a computer program
that looks for a domain that contains a solution.
– Such a program looks for a solution by evaluating f(x) at
different values of x.
– It starts at one value of x and then changes the value of x
in small increments.

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 Overview of approaches in solving equations numerically

 A change in the sign of f(x) indicates that there is a root

within the last increment.
 In most cases, when the equation that is solved is related to an
application in science or engineering, the range of x that
includes the solution can be estimated and used in the initial
plot of f(x), or for a numerical search of a small domain that
contains a solution.
 When an equation has more than one root, a numerical
solution is obtained one root at a time.

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 Overview of approaches in solving equations numerically

 The methods used for solving equations numerically can be

divided into two groups:
 Bracketing methods
 Open methods.

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 Overview of approaches in solving equations numerically

Bracketing methods
– In bracketing methods,
illustrated in Fig. 3-4, an
interval that includes the
solution is identified.
– By definition, the endpoints
of the interval are the upper
bound and lower bound of the
solution.
– Then, by using a numerical
scheme/method, the size of
the interval is successively
reduced until the distance
between the endpoints is less
than the desired accuracy of
the solution.

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 Overview of approaches in solving equations numerically

Open methods
 In open methods, illustrated in
Fig. 3-5, an initial estimate (one
point) for the solution is
assumed.
 The value of this initial guess for
the solution should be close to
the actual solution.
 Then, by using a numerical
scheme/method, better (more
accurate) values for the solution
are calculated.

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 Overview of approaches in solving equations numerically

 Bracketing methods always converge to the solution.

 Open methods are usually more efficient but sometimes
might not yield the solution.
 We will describe several numerical methods for finding a root
of a single equation.
– Two bracketing methods:
• The Bisection method
• The Regula falsi method/Method of false position
– Two open methods:
• Newton’s method,
• Secant method

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