WATER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

GENERAL INTRODUCTION
• The quantity of water required for municipal uses requires
to know water consumption rate (Per Capita Demand in
litres per day per head) and the population to be served
Quantity = Per capita demand x Population.
• After treatment, water is stored temporarily for supply to the
consumers through the network of pipelines called the
distribution system.
• The distribution system also includes pumps, reservoirs,
pipe fittings, instruments for measurement of pressures,
flow leak detectors etc. The cost of distribution is about 40
to 70% of the total cost of the entire W/supply scheme.
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 REQUIREMENT OF A GOOD DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• The system should convey the treated water to consumers with the
same degree of quality
• The system should be economical and easy to operate and maintain
• It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places
with sufficient pressure head.
• During emergency periods like fire break outs; it should be able to
supply sufficient amount of water.
• All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid 1m away or
above the sewer lines.
• All consumer should be supplied even during the repair of any
section of the system.
• The design should be such that the supply should meet maximum
hourly demand.
• It should be fairly water-tight to keep losses due to leakage as
minimum as possible.
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 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATION
General considerations in the design:
– Circulation of water
– Construction and design
– Earth cushioning
– Economy
– Fire demand
– Gradients
– Repairs
– Leakage
– Safety from pollution e.g contamination by sewage
– Sanitation
– Unsafe cross connection

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 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATION (CONT)
Factors affecting per capita demand:
• Size of the city: Per capita demand for big cities is
generally large as compared to that for smaller towns as
big cities have sewered houses.
• Presence of industries.
• Climatic conditions.
• Habits of people and their economic status.
• Quality of water: If water is aesthetically $ medically safe,
the consumption will increase as people will not resort to
private wells, etc.
• Pressure in the distribution system.
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 SYSTEMS OF WATER SUPPLY
There are the two systems of supply which are
based on the duration of supply: CONTINUOUS SYSTEM
AND INTERMITTENT SYSTEM
Continuous System
•This is the best. Water is supplied for 24 hours. It is
possible only when water for supply is adequate .
•Water is always available for fire fighting
•Due to continuous circulation; water is always fresh.
• In this system less diameter of pipes are required and
rusting of pipes will be less.
•Losses will be more if there are leakages in the system.
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 SYSTEMS OF WATER SUPPLY (cont)
Intermittent System
If water is not plenty, the supply is divided into zones. Each zone is
supplied with water for fixed hours in a day or on alternate days.
As the water is supplied after intervals, it is called intermittent
system. In this system water can be supplied in the high level
localities with adequate pressure by dividing the city in zones.
The repair work can be easily done in the non-supply hours.

The system has the following disadvantages:

• Pipelines are likely to rust faster due to alternate wetting and
drying. This increases the maintenance cost.
• There is also pollution of water by ingress of polluted water
through leaks during non-flow periods.
• More wastage of water due to the tendency of the people to
store more water than required quantity and to waste the
excess to collect fresh water each time.
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METHODS OF LAYOUTS OF PIPES FOR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road

pavements, and as such their layouts generally follow
the layouts of roads. There are, in general, four different
types of pipe networks; any one of which either singly
or in combinations, can be used for a particular place.
They are:
• Dead end or tree system
• Grid iron system
• Circular or ring system
• Radial system

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 DEAD END OR TREE SYSTEM
• This system is suitable for irregular developed
towns or cities. In this system water flows in
one direction only into submains and branches.
• The diameter of pipes decreases at every tree
branch.

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 DEAD END OR TREE SYSTEM

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 Advantages of dead end or tree system
• Discharge and pressure at any point in the
distribution system is calculated easily
• The valves required in this system of
layout are comparatively less in number.
• The diameter of pipes used are smaller and
hence the system is cheap and economical
• The laying patterns of water pipes used are
simple which may not need to be
standardized
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 Disadvantages of dead end or tree system
• There is stagnation of water at dead ends of
pipes causing contamination.
• During repairs of pipes or valves at any
point, the entire down stream end are
deprived of supply
• The water available for fire fighting will be
limited in quantity

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 GRID IRON SYSTEM
• From the mains water enters the branches at all
Junctions in either directions into submains of equal
diameters.
• At any point in the line the pressure is balanced from
two directions because of interconnected network of
pipes

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 GRID IRON SYSTEM

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 Advantages of grid iron system
• In the case of repairs a very small portion
of distribution will be affected
• Every point receives supply from two
directions and with higher pressure
• Additional water from the other branches
are available for fire fighting
• There is free circulation of water and hence
it is not liable for pollution due to
stagnation.
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 Disadvantages of grid iron system

• More length of pipes and number of valves

are needed and hence there is increased cost
of construction
• Calculation of sizes of pipes and working out
pressures at various points in the distribution
system is laborious, complicated and difficult

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 CIRCULAR OR RING SYSTEM

• Supply to the inner pipes is from the mains

around the boundary. It has the same advantages
as the grid-Iron system. Smaller diameter pipes
are needed.
• The advantages and disadvantages are same as
that of grid-Iron system

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 CIRCULAR OR RING SYSTEM

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 RADIAL SYSTEM

• This is a zoned system. Water is pumped to the

distribution reservoirs and from the reservoirs it
flows by gravity to the tree system of pipes.
• The pressure calculations are easy in this
system. Layout of roads need to be radial to
eliminate loss of head in bends.
• This is most economical system also if
combined pumping and gravity flow is adapted
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 RADIAL SYSTEM

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 METHODS OF DISTRIBUTION
For efficient distribution it is required that the water
should reach to every consumer with required rate
of flow. Therefore, some pressure in pipeline is
necessary, which should force the water to reach at
every place. Depending upon the methods of
distribution, the distribution system is classified as
the follows:
• Gravity system
• Pumping system
• Dual system or combined gravity and pumping
system
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 GRAVITY SYSTEM
• When some ground sufficiently high above the city
area is available, this can be best utilized for
distribution system in maintaining pressure in water
mains .
• This method is also much suitable when the source
of supply such as lake, river or impounding
reservoir is sufficiently higher than city.
• The water flows in the mains due to gravitational
forces.
• No pumping is required therefore it is the most
reliable system for the distribution of water 21
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 GRAVITY SYSTEM

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 PUMPING SYSTEM
• Constant pressure can be maintained in the system
by direct pumping into mains.
• Rate of flow cannot be varied easily according to
demand unless number of pumps are operated in
addition to stand by ones.
• Supply can be effected during power failure and
breakdown of pumps. Hence diesel pumps also in
addition to electrical pumps as stand by to be
maintained.
• During fires, the water can be pumped in required
quantity by the stand by units.
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 PUMPING SYSTEM

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 COMBINED PUMPING AND GRAVITY SYSTEM
• This is also known as dual system. The pump is connected to the mains as
well as elevated reservoir.
• In the begining when demand is small the water is stored in the elevated
reservoir, but when demand increases the rate of pumping , the flow in
the distribution system comes from both the pumping station as well as
elevated reservoir.
• As in this system water comes from two sources one from reservoir and
second from pumping station, it is called dual system.
• This system is more reliable and economical, because it requires uniform
rate of pumping but meets low as well as maximum demand.
• The water stored in the elevated reservoir meets the requirements of
demand during breakdown of pumps and for fire fighting.

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 COMBINED PUMPING AND GRAVITY SYSTEM

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 SERVICE RESERVOIR
• Service or distribution reservoirs are generally
provided in the distribution system to store the
clear treated water before it is despatched to
consumers
• The reservoirs may be constructed of :
– brick masonry,
– cement concrete-plain,
– reinforced concrete,
– pre-stressed concrete,
– steel
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– stone masonry 27
 PURPOSE OF RESERVOIR
• In pumping system-pumps run at uniform rate
• In gravity system—results to mains of small
diameters
• Meeting fluctuating hourly demand
• Maintain constant pressure in the mains
• Economical design and construction of treatment
units and distribution system
• Storage of emergencies such as breakdown of
pumps, mains
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 TYPES OF RESERVOIR
• According to the situation with respect to ground, the service
reservoirs are classified as:
– Surface reservoir
– Elevated reservoirs (overhead tanks)

• Design aspects
– Accessories
– Depth
– Foundation
– Location
– Material of construction
– Storage capacity
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 PUMPS
• The function of pump is to lift the water or
any fluid to higher elevation or at higher
pressure. Pumps are driven by electricity,
diesel or steam power.
• They are helpful in pumping water from the
sources, that is from intake to the treatment
plant and from treatment plant to the
distribution system or service reservoir
• In homes also pumps are used to pump water
to upper floors or to store water in tanks over
the buildings
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 TYPES OF PUMPS AND THEIR SUITABILITY

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 PIPES AND REQUIREMENTS

Pipes convey raw water from the source to

the treatment plant in the distribution
system. Water is always under pressure.
Therefore, pipe material and the fixture
should withstand stresses due to the internal
pressure, vacuum pressure, when the pipes
are empty, water hammer when the valves
are closed and temperature stresses

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 WATER HAMMER
• When the water flowing in a long pipe is suddenly
brought to rest by closing the valve or by any
similar cause, there will be a sudden rise in pressure
due to the momentum of the moving water being
destroyed. This cause a wave of high pressure
transmitted along the pipe, which creates noise
known as knocking.

• This phenomenon of sudden rise of pressure in the

pipe is known as WATER HAMMER or HAMMER
BLOW
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 REQUIREMENTS OF PIPE MATERIAL
• It should be capable to withstand internal and
external pressures
• It should have facility of easy joints
• It should be available in all sizes, transport and
erecting should be easy.
• It should be durable
• It should not react with water to alter its quality
• Cost of pipes should be less
• Frictional head loss should be minimum
• The damaged units should be replaced easily.
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 DIFFERENT TYPES OF PIPES
The following are the different types of pipes
• Cast Iron
• Steel
• Prestressed concrete
• R.C.C
• A.C. Pipes
• Galvanised Iron (G.I)
• P.V.C and plastic pipes

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 WATER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

The transmission and distribution of water in

pipes under pressure has the following
rationales:
There is minimum risk of contamination to
the water in the system.
The pressurized pipes versus free flow in
closed conduits (sewage e.g.):-

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 WATER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

 The pipe need not follow the route with

continuous fall, but may both fall and rise
against the hydraulic gradient, which allows
route through hilly terrain.
 This is cheaper to build than free flowing
conduit.

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04/05/25 38
 WATER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

The design of pipelines, for both for

transmission as well as distribution of water,
always (except for small service lines and in-
house connections) require hydraulic
calculations for:
 Pipe friction losses;
 Local losses (e.g. bends, tees etc.) are usually
neglected in pipe design.
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 HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS
 Many equations approximate frictional losses associated
with the flow of liquid through a given section.
 Commonly used friction loss methods include :-
 Chezy’s Equation
 Kutter’s Equation
 Manning’s Equation
 Darcy-Weibach Equation
 Hazen-Williams equation
Friction losses are generally based on the relationships
between fluid velocity, section roughness, depth of flow,
and the friction due to slope (head loss per unit length of
conduit).
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 PIPE NETWORK ANALYSIS
 Analysis of water distribution system includes
determining quantities of flow and head losses in
the various pipe lines, and resulting residual
pressures.
 In any pipe network, the following two conditions
must be satisfied:
 The algebraic sum of pressure drops around a
closed loop must be zero, i.e. there can be no
discontinuity in pressure.
 The flow entering a junction must be equal to
the flow leaving that junction i.e. the law of
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 PIPE NETWORK ANALYSIS METHODS

 Based on these two basic principles, the pipe

networks are generally solved by the methods of
successive approximation. The widely used method
of pipe network analysis is the Hardy-Cross method
 This method consists of assuming a distribution of
flow in the network in such a way that the principle
of continuity is satisfied at each junction.
 A correction to these assumed flows is then
computed successively for each pipe loop in the
network, until the correction is reduced to an
acceptable magnitude.
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 Hydraulic Design of Distribution Systems
Several feasible ways exist for designing a
system hydraulically
 For a branched system:
 Treat each branch individually
 Elevation (height) must satisfy line with
most unfavorable head loss pattern.
 For a grid-like (loop) system:
 Treat loops simultaneously
 Assume certain Q for each pipe or link.
 Calculate the DQ -adjustment amount
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 Hardy-Cross Method
• The Hardy Cross method is an iterative method for determining the
flow in pipe network systems where the inputs and outputs are
known, but the flow inside the network is unknown
• The Hardy Cross method is an adaptation of the Moment
distribution method, which was also developed by Hardy Cross as a
way to determine the moments in indeterminate structures
• The introduction of the Hardy Cross method for analyzing pipe flow
networks revolutionized municipal water supply design.
• Before the method was introduced, solving complex pipe systems for
distribution was extremely difficult due to the nonlinear relationship
between head loss and flow.
• The method was later made obsolete by computer solving algorithms
employ the Newton-Raphson method or other solving methods that
prevent the need to solve nonlinear systems of equations by hand
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 Hardy-Cross Method
 This method consists of assuming a distribution
of flow in the network in such a way that the
principle of continuity is satisfied at each
junction.
 A correction to these assumed flows is then
computed successively for each pipe loop in the
network, until the correction is reduced to an
acceptable magnitude
 The value of n in Hardy- Cross method is
assumed to be constant (i.e. 1.85 for Hazen-
William's formula, and 2 for Darcy-Weisbach
formula)
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 Derivation Hardy-Cross Method
• The Hardy Cross method is an application of continuity of
flow and continuity of potential to iteratively solve for
flows in a pipe network.
• In the case of pipe flow, conservation of flow means that
the flow in is equal to the flow out at each junction in the
pipe.
• Conservation of potential means that the total directional
head loss along any loop in the system is zero (assuming
that a head loss counted against the flow is actually a head
gain).
• Hardy Cross developed two methods for solving flow
networks.
• Each
04/05/25method starts by maintaining either continuity
46 of flow
 Assumptions
• The Hardy Cross method assume that the flow going in and
out of the system is known and that the pipe length,
diameter, roughness and other key characteristics are also
known or can be assumed.
• The method also assumes that the relation between flow
rate and head loss is known, but the method does not
require any particular relation to be used.
• In the case of water flow through pipes, a number of
methods have been developed to determine the
relationship between head loss and flow.
• The Hardy Cross method allows for any of these
relationships to be used.
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 Assumptions
• The general relationship between head loss and flow is:

n
h f KQ

• Where K is the head loss per unit flow and n is the flow exponent. In
most design situations the values that make up K, such as pipe
length, diameter, and roughness, are taken to be known or assumed
and the value of K can be determined for each pipe in the network.
• The values that make up K and the value of n change depending on
the relation used to determine head loss.
• However, all relations are compatible with the Hardy Cross method.
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 Hardy-Cross Method

H L  KQ n Expression of Headloss H in terms of the discharge Q

K and n are asumed constant and Q is the discharge in the pipe

If Qo is the assumed discharge then the true Q is Q Qo  Q

Q Correction (small quantity) discharge in order to satisfy the continuity equation

H L  K (QO  Q ) n

Expansion by Binomial theorem and neglecting terms containing (Q) 2

and higher

H L  K (QON  nQon  1 Q For Closed loop

H L 0

 0
Q n
 H L
Then  nKQ n 1
o Q   KQ n
O
Q 
 o
nKQ n 1

H
 Q
n L

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 Hardy-Cross method
The Hardy-Cross method consists of the following procedure:
 Number each of the various loops
 Assume a flow direction (clockwise = positive ;
counterclockwise = negative) and assume an initial flow
through each pipe.
 Calculate the head loss in each loop. Use the same sign
convention as above.
 Check the closure of loop by summing head losses of all
pipes in loop.
 Calculate flow corrections to improve headloss closure.
 Repeat process until head losses converge to the desired
accuracy
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 Determine the flow in each pipe show in figure below

0. 3m 3 / s

1 4
0 .6 m 3 / s
4

1
3

2 0. 3m 3 / s
2 3

K 1  K 3  K 4 1

K 2 2

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 First Guess
0.3m 3 / s
0.3m 3 / s
1 4
0 .6 m 3 / s
4

1
3
0 .6 m / s +
3
0.3m 3 / s

2 0.3m 3 / s
2 3

1 .2 m 3 / s 0 .6 m 3 / s

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 First Iteration

Pipe No. K Q(m 3 / s) H Li (m) HL Q(m 3 / s)

Q

1 1 0.600 0.389 0.648 0.679

2 2 -0.600 -0.777 1.295 -0.521
3 1 -0.300 -0.108 0.360 -0.221
4 1 0.300 0.108 0.360 0.379
Sum -0.388 2.663

Q 
 0
Q n


H L
0.079
 nKQ n 1
o
 Q
n
H L

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 Second Iteration

Pipe No. K Q(m 3 / s) H Li (m) HL Q(m 3 / s)

Q

1 1 0.679 0.489 0.720 0.680

2 2 -0.521 -0.599 1.149 -0.520
3 1 -0.221 -0.061 0.276 -0.220
4 1 0.379 0.166 0.438 0.380
Sum -0.005 2.584

Q 
 0
Q n


 H L
0.001
 nKQ n 1
o
H
n Q L

o
04/05/25 54
 Advantages of the Hardy Cross method
• Simple math
– The method is useful because it relies on only simple math to
solve a system of equations.
– Without the Hardy Cross methods, engineers would have to
solve complex systems of equations with variable exponents that
cannot easily be solved by hand.
• Self correcting
– It iteratively corrects for the mistakes in the initial guess used to
solve the problem.
– Subsequent mistakes in calculation are also iteratively corrected.
– If followed correctly, the proper flow in each pipe can still be
found if small mathematics are consistently made in the process.
– As long as the last few iterations are done in detail, the solution
still be correct. In fact, it is possible to intentionally leave off
decimals in early iterations to run the calculations faster.
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