THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH

(Operant Conditioning)
GROUP MEMBERS
QUDSIYA
ALLIZAY
SAHER
NADIA
LAIBA
Operant conditioning:

Operant conditioning is a way of learning where behaviors are shaped by

rewards and punishments. It was developed by B.F. Skinner, a
psychologist, who showed that people and animals tend to repeat
actions that lead to good results and avoid actions that lead to bad
results.
How It Works:

Operant conditioning has four main parts:

 Positive Reinforcement (Adding a reward)
If you do something good and get a reward, you are more likely to do it
again.
Example:
A child gets a cookie for cleaning their room. They will be more likely to
clean it in the future.
 Negative Reinforcement (Removing
something unpleasant):

 If a behavior helps remove something bad, you are more likely to do

it again.
Example: Taking painkillers removes a headache, so you are more likely
to take them next time you have a headache.
 Positive Punishment (Adding a punishment):
 If you do something bad and get punished, you are less likely to do it
again.
Example: A child touches a hot stove and feels pain. They learn not to
touch it again.
 Negative Punishment (Taking
away something good):
If you lose something valuable because of bad behavior, you are less
likely to repeat it.
Example: A teenager stays out past curfew, so their parents take away
their phone for a week.
Everyday Examples:

 At work: Getting a bonus for good performance (positive

reinforcement).
 At school: Getting detention for being late (positive punishment).
 Parenting: Ignoring a child’s tantrum so they stop seeking
attention that way (negative punishment).
 Animals: A dog sits when asked and gets a treat, so it learns to sit
on command (positive reinforcement).
Why It Matters:

 Operant conditioning is used everywhere—in parenting, schools, workplaces, and even

training animals. It helps shape behavior by encouraging good actions and discouraging bad
ones.

 What is Reinforcement?
 Reinforcement is a process in which a behavior is
strengthened or encouraged to happen more often.
It works by either adding something pleasant
(reward) or removing something unpleasant after a
behavior occurs. Reinforcement is a key part of
operant conditioning (learning through rewards and
punishments).
Types of Reinforcement:

Types of Reinforcement:
 Positive Reinforcement (Adding a Reward)
This happens when you give a reward to encourage a behavior.
Example: A student gets a gold star for completing homework, making them more likely to
do homework again.
 Other examples:
A dog gets a treat for sitting.
An employee gets a bonus for meeting a target.
 Negative Reinforcement
(Removing Something Unpleasant)
 This happens when something bad is taken away to encourage a behavior.
Example: A driver fastens their seatbelt to stop the annoying beeping sound.
 Other examples:
Taking painkillers to remove a headache.
Leaving early to avoid traffic.
Rein forcers: Primary vs.
Secondary:
 Primary Reinforces – Things that are naturally rewarding (e.g.,
food, water, sleep).
 Secondary Reinforces – Things that gain value through learning
(e.g., money, praise, good grades).
 Why is Reinforcement Important?
Reinforcement helps shape behaviors in education, parenting,
workplaces, and even animal training. It encourages people to repeat
good behaviors and learn new skills.
What is punishment:

 In the behavioral approach of operant conditioning, punishment is a process used

to reduce or discourage a behavior by following it with a consequence. Punishment
works by decreasing the likelihood that a behavior will happen again in the future.
Types Of Punishment:

 There are two main types of punishment:

 Positive Punishment (Punishment by Application)
 Negative Punishment (Punishment by Removal)
Positive Punishment:

 Definition: Positive punishment involves adding an unpleasant stimulus after a

behavior to reduce the likelihood of that behavior happening again.
Example: If a student talks in class, the teacher might give extra homework as a
consequence. The extra homework is an unpleasant stimulus that aims to discourage the
student from talking in class again.
Negative Punishment:

 Definition: Negative punishment involves removing a pleasant stimulus after a

behavior to decrease the chance of that behavior occurring again.
Example: If a child doesn’t complete their chores, the parent might take away their video
game privileges. Losing the video game time is a removal of a pleasant stimulus to reduce
the child’s likelihood of avoiding chores in the future.
The Shaping of Behavior:

B.F. Skinner studied how behavior is shaped through rewards.

His experiment with a rat in a box showed that actions can be learned through operant
conditioning (rewards and punishments).
Operant Conditioning
Experiment:
A hungry rat was placed in a box with a lever.
The rat accidentally pressed the lever and received food.
Over time, the rat learned to press the lever to get food.
This process is called operant conditioning—learning through rewards or
punishments.
Successive Approximation
(Shaping)
Some behaviors do not happen naturally and must be learned in steps.
Skinner developed a method called shaping to teach such behaviors.
Example of Shaping (Pigeon
Experiment)
 To teach a pigeon to peck a specific spot, Skinner:
 Rewarded it for turning toward the spot.
 Rewarded it for moving closer.
 Rewarded it for pointing its head toward the spot.
 Rewarded it only when its beak touched the spot.
 Parents use the same method to teach children how to speak.
Shaping a Person’s Behavior in
Five Minutes:
 Skinner once used shaping on psychoanalyst Erich Fromm during a lecture.
 Whenever Fromm moved his hand up, Skinner looked at him.
 When Fromm lowered his hand, Skinner nodded and smiled.
 Within minutes, Fromm exaggerated his hand movements without realizing he was
conditioned.
 Superstitious Behavior:

 Sometimes, people or animals mistakenly connect an action with a reward, even when
there is no real link.
 This is called superstitious behavior.
Examples of Superstitious
Behavior:
 A football player switched beds and then performed better, so he always chose the
same bed.
 An NFL kicker hugged the goalpost before a game, made a perfect kick, and continued
hugging it before every game.
Superstitious Behavior in
Experiments:
 Skinner placed a pigeon in a cage and gave it food every 15 seconds.
 The pigeon happened to be spinning when food appeared, so it repeated the action,
thinking it caused the food to appear.
 Over time, the pigeon kept spinning, even though there was no real connection.
 This explains why people develop superstitions (e.g., lucky shirts, charms).
The Self-Control of Behavior:

 Skinner believed that behavior is shaped by external factors.

 However, we can control our actions by managing these influences.
Four Ways to Control Behavior:

 Stimulus Avoidance
 Removing yourself from a situation that affects your behavior.
Example: Studying in the library if your roommate is noisy.
 Self-Administered Satiation
 Overdoing a bad habit until you no longer want to do it.
Example: A smoker smokes too much in one sitting until they feel sick
and quit.
 Four Ways to Control Behavior
(Continued)
 Aversive Stimulation
 Setting up unpleasant consequences for bad habits.
Example: Telling friends about a weight loss goal to avoid
embarrassment if you fail.
 Self-Reinforcement
 Rewarding yourself for good behavior.
Example: Buying a book or concert ticket after reaching a study goal.
Benefits of Self-Control:

 People with strong self-control:

 Get better grades.
 Have healthier relationships.
 Feel happier and more satisfied.
 Avoid problems like addiction, crime, and financial troubles.
 Self-control helps people overcome bad habits and stay focused on
their goals.
EXTINCTION:

 Extinction is a concept in psychology and learning theory that refers to the process of
eliminating or reducing an unwanted behavior by removing or withholding the
reinforcement that maintains it.
Examples:

 Phobia Extinction:
A person has a phobia of spiders. Every time they see a spider, they run away. To
extinguish this behavior, a therapist might expose the person to pictures of spiders without
allowing them to run away. Over time, the person learns that the spider is not a threat, and
the running away behavior is extinguished.
 Addiction Extinction:
A pnguished.erson is addicted to smoking. Every time they feel stressed, they light a
cigarette. To extinguish this behavior, a therapist might teach the person alternative coping
mechanisms, such as deep breathing or exercise, and encourage them to avoid smoking
when feeling stressed. Over time, the person learns that smoking is not an effective way to
manage stress, and the smoking behavior is extinction.
Reinforcement:

 Reinforcement is a concept in psychology and learning theory that refers to the process
of following a behavior with a consequence that increases the likelihood of that
behavior occurring again in the future.
 Example:
A child, let's call her Emma, cleans up her toys after playing. Her mother praises her and
gives her a sticker.
Primary Reinforcement:

 A primary reinforcer is a stimulus that is naturally reinforcing and does not require
learning or conditioning to be effective.
 Examples:
 Food: A hungry child is given a cookie after completing a task. The cookie is a
primary reinforcer because it satisfies the child's hunger and is naturally pleasing.
 Relief from Pain: A person is given pain medication after an injury. The medication is
a primary reinforcer because it provides relief from physical discomfort.
Secondary Reinforcement:

 A secondary reinforcer is a stimulus that gains reinforcing properties through

association with a primary reinforcer or another established secondary reinforcer.
 Examples:
 Money: A person receives a paycheck for completing their work. The money is a
secondary reinforcer because it can be used to purchase primary reinforcers like food
and shelter.
 Praise: A student receives praise from their teacher for completing their homework.
The praise is a secondary reinforcer because it is associated with feelings of satisfaction
and self-worth.
 Schedules of
Reinforcement
 Continuous Reinforcement: Every time the rat does
the appropriate behavior, he gets a pellet.
 Fixed ratio schedule: If the rat presses the pedal three
times, he gets a pellet…or five times, or twenty times,
or x times. There is a fixed ratio between behaviors
and reinforcers.
 Fixed interval schedule: If the rat presses the bar at
least once during a particular period of time, say 20
seconds, he gets a pellet. But whether he presses the
bar once or a hundred times within that 20 seconds, he
only receives one reinforcer.
 Variable ratio schedule: You change the x each time.
First it takes 3 presses to get a pellet, then 10, then 4,
etc.
 Variable interval schedule: You keep changing the
time period. First 10 seconds, then 35, then 5, then 40.
Stimulus
Generalization
• In the classical conditioning
process, stimulus
generalization is the
tendency for the conditioned
stimulus to evoke similar
responses after the response
has been conditioned. For
example, if a dog has been
conditioned to bark with
excitement when it hears the
jingle of keys in the front
door, similar sounds may
evoke the same response.
Examples of Stimulus
Generalization:

The Little Albert Experiment

 One famous psychology experiment
perfectly illustrated how stimulus
generalization works. In the classic Little
Albert experiment, researchers John B.
Watson and Rosalie Rayner conditioned a
little boy to fear a white rat.
 The researchers observed that the boy
experienced stimulus generalization by
showing fear in response to similar stimuli,
including a dog, a rabbit, a fur coat, a white
Santa Claus beard, and even Watson's own
hair.
 Instead of distinguishing between the fear
object and similar stimuli, the little boy
became fearful of objects that were similar
in appearance to the white rat.
Other Examples of Stimulus
Generalization
A mother is used to responding when she hears her
child ask for help, but may also respond when she hears
another child say "Mom."

If you developed a phobia after being bitten by a dog,

you might experience a similar fear response when you
see other types of dogs.

Students recognize that a bell signals the end of class; if

a similar sound occurs, they may think that class is
over.
  In operant conditioning, stimulus
STIMULUS generalization explains how we can learn
something in one situation and apply it to
GENERALIZAT other similar situations.

ION: Example:
 Imagine that parents punish their son for not
cleaning his room. He eventually learns to
clean up his messes to avoid punishment.
Instead of having to relearn this behavior at
school, he applies the same principles he
learned at home to his classroom behaviour
and cleaned up his messes before the teacher
can punish him.
  Stimulus discrimination is a term used in
both classical and operant conditioning. It
STIMULUS involves the ability to distinguish between one
DISCRIMINATION: stimulus and similar stimuli. In both cases, it
means responding only to certain stimuli, and
not responding to those that are similar.
CONTINUE…

Classical conditioning is a type

of learning that involves
For example, if a bell tone
forming associations between
were the conditioned stimulus,
two stimuli. In this process,
discrimination would involve
discrimination is the ability to
being able to tell the
differentiate between
difference between the bell
a conditioned stimulus and
sound and other similar
other stimuli that have not
sounds.
been paired with
an unconditioned stimulus.
CONTINUE…

For example, imagine that you have

trained your dog to jump in the air
whenever you say the command,
In operant conditioning, stimulus
"Jump!" In this instance,
discrimination refers to responding
discrimination refers to your dog's
only to the discriminative stimulus
ability to distinguish between the
and not to similar stimuli.
command for jumping and similar
commands such as sit, stay, or
speak.
  Another example might be the type
of behaviours that are appropriate
in one situation but not in another.
Because of stimulus
discrimination, you recognize that
eating with your hands with your
EXAMPLE: elbows on the table might be
appropriate in a casual, fast-food
restaurant, but that such behaviour
would be considered inappropriate
in a more formal dining setting.