Introduction To Genetics-

Chapter 11

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11-1 The Work of Gregor Mendel

I. The work of Gregor

Mendel
A. Gregor Mendel was born in
1822 and after becoming a priest;
Mendel was a math teacher for 14
years and a monastery. Mendel
was also in charge of the
monastery garden.

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11-1 The Work of Gregor Mendel

I. The work of Gregor

Mendel
1. Mendel carried
out his work with
garden peas

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11-1 The Work of Gregor Mendel

I. The work of Gregor

Mendel
2. Fertilization is the fusion of an
egg and a sperm.

3. True breeding plants are plants

that were allowed to self-pollinate
and the offspring would be exactly
like the parent.

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11-1 The Work of Gregor Mendel

I. The work of Gregor

Mendel

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11-1 The Work of Gregor Mendel

Mendel’s experiments
 The first thing Mendel did was create
a “pure” generation or true-breeding
generation.
 He made sure that certain pea plants
were only able to self pollinate,
eliminating unwanted traits.
 He did this by cutting away the
stamen, or male part of each flower

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11-1 The Work of Gregor Mendel
Figure 11-3 Mendel’s Seven F1
Crosses on Pea Plants

Mendel’s experiments
Section 11-1

Seed Seed Seed Coat Pod Pod Flower Plant

Shape Color Color Shape Color Position Height

Round Yellow Gray Smooth Green Axial Tall

Wrinkled Green White Constricted Yellow Terminal Short

Round Yellow Gray Smooth Green Axial Tall

*Flower color – purple (P) vs. white (p)

Seed coat color and flower color are often put

Go to in for one another – thus, the EIGHT traits!!!
Section: 7
11-1 The Work of Gregor Mendel

Genes and dominance

 Trait : a characteristic
 Mendel studied seven of these traits
 After Mendel ensured that his true-
breeding generation was pure, he
then crossed plants showing
contrasting traits.

He called the offspring the F1
generation or first filial.

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 What will happen when pure
11-1 The Work of Gregor Mendel

yellow peas are crossed with pure

green peas?
 All of the
offspring were
yellow.
 Hybrids = the
offspring of
crosses between
parents with
contrasting traits

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11-1 The Work of Gregor Mendel

What did Mendel

conclude?
 Inheritance is determined by
factors passed on from one
generation to another.
 Mendel knew nothing about
chromosomes, genes, or DNA.
Why?
 These terms hadn’t yet been
defined.
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11-1 The Work of Gregor Mendel

What were Mendel’s

“factors”
 The ‘factors” that Mendel
mentioned were the genes.
 Each gene has different forms
called alleles
 Mendel’s second principle stated
that some alleles are dominant
and some are recessive.

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11-1 The Work of Gregor Mendel

Mendel’s second cross

 He allowed the F1 generation to
self-pollinate thus producing the F2
generation.
 Did the recessive allele completely
disappear?
 What happened when he crossed
two yellow pea hybrid (F1) plants?

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11-1 The Work of Gregor Mendel

Results:
 ¾ of the peas were yellow,
¼ of the peas were green.
 During the formation of the sex
cells or gametes, the alleles
separated or segregated to
different gametes. (pollen and egg)

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11-2 Probability and Punnett Squares

Punnett square example

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11-2 Probability and Punnett Squares

Reading Punnett squares

 Gametes are placed above and to
the left of the square
 Offspring are placed in the square.
 Capital letters (Y) represent
dominant alleles.
 Lower case letters (y) represent
recessive alleles.

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11-2 Probability and Punnett Squares

Phenotype vs genotype
 Genotype  Phenotype
 The genetic  Physical
makeup appearance of the
 Symbolized with organism
letters  Expression of the
 Tt or TT trait
 Short, tall, yellow,
smooth, etc.

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11-2 Probability and Punnett Squares

B. Genes and Dominance

1. The different forms of a gene is
called and an alleles.

2. The principal of dominance

states that some alleles are
dominant and others are recessive.

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11-2 Probability and Punnett Squares

B. Genes and Dominance

Pinky Finger Traits
At Paris Gibson Ed Center we tested dominant and recessive traits in
our school population. We tested pinky finger traits, whereby, the bent
finger is dominant and the straight finger is recessive.

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11-2 Probability and Punnett Squares

C. Segregation
1. Each trait has two genes, one from the
mother and one from the father.

2. Traits can be either dominant or

recessive.

3. A dominant trait only needs one gene

in order to be expressed.

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11-2 Probability and Punnett Squares

C. Segregation
4. A recessive trait needs two
genes in order to be expressed.

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11-2 Probability and Punnett Squares

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11-2 Probability and Punnett Squares

C. Segregation
5. Egg and sperm are sex cells
called gametes.

6. Segregation is the separation of

alleles during gamete formation.

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11-2 Probability and Punnett Squares

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11-2 Probability and Punnett Squares

II. Probability and Punnett

Squares
A. Genetics and Probability

1. The likelihood that a particular

event will occur is called
probability.

2. The principals of probability can

be used to predict the outcome of
genetic crosses.
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11-2 Probability and Punnett Squares

II. Probability and Punnett

Squares

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11-2 Probability and Punnett Squares

B. Punnett Squares
1. The gene combination that might
result from a genetic cross can be
determined by drawing a diagram
known as a Punnett square.

2. Punnett squares can be used to

predict and compare the genetic
variations that will result from a cross.

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11-2 Probability and Punnett Squares

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11-2 Probability and Punnett Squares

B. Punnett Squares
3. Each trait has two genes- one
from the mother and one from the
father.

4. Alleles can be homozygous –

having the same traits.

5. Alleles can be heterozygous-

having different traits.
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11-2 Probability and Punnett Squares

B. Punnett Squares

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11-2 Probability and Punnett Squares

B. Punnett Squares
6. Physical characteristics are
called the phenotype.

7. Genetic make up is the

genotype.

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11-2 Probability and Punnett Squares

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11-3 Exploring Mendelian Genetics

III. Exploring Mendalian

Genetics
A. Independent assortment

1. Genes segregate
independently.

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11-3 Exploring Mendelian Genetics

III. Exploring Mendalian

Genetics
2. The principle of independent
assortment states that genes for different
traits can segregate independently during
the formation of gametes.

3. Independent assortment helps account

for the many genetic variations observed
in plants, animals and other organisms.

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11-3 Exploring Mendelian Genetics

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11-3 Exploring Mendelian Genetics

The dihybrid cross

 Punnett square on board:

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11-3 Exploring Mendelian Genetics

B. A summary of Mendel’s
Principals
1. Genes are passed from parent
to offspring.

2. Some forms of a gene may be

dominant and others recessive.

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11-3 Exploring Mendelian Genetics

B. A summary of Mendel’s
Principals
3. In most sexually producing
organisms, each adult has two copies of
each gene- one from each parent.
These genes are segregated from each
other when gametes are formed.

4. The alleles for different genes

usually segregate independently of one
another.
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11-3 Exploring Mendelian Genetics

C. Beyond Dominance
and Recessive alleles
1. Some alleles are neither
dominant nor recessive, and many
traits are controlled by multiple
alleles or multiple genes.

2. Cases in which one allele is not

completely dominant over another
are called incomplete dominance.

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11-3 Exploring Mendelian Genetics

Incomplete dominance
 A situation in which neither allele
is dominant.
 When both alleles are present a
“new” phenotype appears that is a
blend of each allele.
 Alleles will be represented by
capital letters only.

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11-3 Exploring Mendelian Genetics

Incomplete dominance
Example: White (W) and Red (R) is
both dominate. If WW X RR the
F1 generation would be WR= pink.

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 What happens when a red
11-3 Exploring Mendelian Genetics

flower is crossed with a white

flower?

 According to
Mendel either
some white and
some red or all
offspring either
red or white.
 All are pink

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11-3 Exploring Mendelian Genetics

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11-3 Exploring Mendelian Genetics

C. Beyond Dominance
and Recessive alleles
3. Codominance is when both
alleles contribute to the
phenotype.

Example: Feather colors

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11-3 Exploring Mendelian Genetics

C. Beyond Dominance
and Recessive alleles
4. Many genes have more than
two alleles and are referred to
have multiple alleles.

a. This means that more than

two possible alleles exist in a
population. Example: colors of
rabbits see page 273.

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11-3 Exploring Mendelian Genetics

C. Beyond Dominance
and Recessive alleles

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11-3 Exploring Mendelian Genetics

C. Beyond Dominance
and Recessive alleles
5. Traits that are controlled by two
or more genes are said to be
polygenic traits, which means,
“having many genes.”
a. Example: eye color has many
different genes.

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Meiosis

Division of Sex Cells

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11-4 Meiosis

The Point of Meiosis

Meiosis is a process of reduction

division in which the number of
chromosomes per cell is cut in half
through the separation of
homologous chromosomes in a
diploid cell.

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11-4 Meiosis

2 types: Spermatogeneis
& Oogenesis

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11-4 Meiosis

Meiosis
 Diploid – 2 sets of chromosomes
 Haploid – 1 set of chromosomes
 Homologous – chromosomes that
each have a corresponding
chromosome from the opposite sex
parent

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11-4 Meiosis

Meiosis

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11-4 Meiosis

IV. Meiosis
A. Chromosome number

1. Every individual has two sets of

chromosomes. One from the
mother one from the father. When
the chromosomes pair up for the
same trait they are called
homologous chromosomes.

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11-4 Meiosis

IV. Meiosis
2. A cell that contains homologous
chromosomes (2 genes) is said to
be diploid/ 2n.

3. Gametes (egg /sperm) have

only one chromosome and are said
to be haploid/ n.

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11-4 Meiosis

IV. Meiosis
Meiosis I- The homologous chromosomes
line up BUT then they CROSS OVER,
exchanging genetic information.

Meiosis II- The two cells produced by

meiosis I now enter a second meiotic
division. The final product = start with 1
cell with 46 chromosomes and get 4
DIFFERENT cells each with 23
chromosomes.
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11-4 Meiosis

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11-4 Meiosis

Meiosis Stages
 Meiosis usually involves 2 distinct
stages
 Meiosis I (animation)
 Meiosis II (animation)

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11-4 Meiosis

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11-4 Meiosis

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11-4 Meiosis

Prophase I
 Each chromosome pairs with its
corresponding homologous chromosome
to form a tetrad.
 There are 4 chromosomes in a tetrad.
 The pairing of homologous chromosomes
is the key to understanding meiosis.
 Crossing-over may occur here
 Crossing-over is when chromosomes
overlap and exchange portions of their
chromatids.

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11-4 Meiosis

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11-4 Meiosis

Prophase I

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11-4 Meiosis

Metaphase I
 Spindle fibers attach to the
chromosomes

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11-4 Meiosis

Metaphase I

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11-4 Meiosis

Anaphase I
 The fibers pull the homologous
chromosomes toward opposite
ends of the cell.

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11-4 Meiosis

Anaphase I

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11-4 Meiosis

Telophase I & Cytokinesis

 Nuclear membranes form.
 The cell separates into 2 cells.

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11-4 Meiosis

Telophase I

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11-4 Meiosis

Prophase II
 Meiosis I results in two haploid (N)
cells.
 Each cell has half the number of
chromosomes as the original cell.

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11-4 Meiosis

Prophase II

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11-4 Meiosis

Metaphase II
 The chromosomes line up similar
to metaphase in mitosis.

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11-4 Meiosis

Metaphase II

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11-4 Meiosis

Anaphase II
 Sister chromatids separate and
move to opposite ends of the cell.

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11-4 Meiosis

Anaphase II

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11-4 Meiosis

Telophase II
 Meiosis II results in 4 haploid cells.

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11-4 Meiosis

Telophase II

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11-4 Meiosis

Gamete Formation
 In males, meiosis results in 4
sperm cells
 In females, meiosis results in 1 egg
cell and three polar bodies, which
are not used in reproduction.

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11-4 Meiosis

Net result:
 Spermatogensis  Oogensis
 4 mature sperm  1 mature ova or
 Each sperm has egg.
exactly half the  Each egg has
number of exactly half the
chromosomes as number of
the father. chromosomes as
the mother.

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11-4 Meiosis

2 types: Spermatogeneis
& Oogenesis

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11-4 Meiosis

Mitosis vs Meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis
Results in 2 Diploid 4 Haploid
Cells (2N) Cells (N)
Cells are Genetically Genetically
Identical Different
Occurs in Somatic Sex Cells
(Body) Cells

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11-5 Linkage and Gene Maps

V. Linkage and gene

maps
A. Gene linkage

1. Thomas Hunt Morgan research

on fruit flies led him to the
principal of linkage.

2. Morgan discovered that many

genes appeared “linked” together.
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11-5 Linkage and Gene Maps

V. Linkage and gene

maps

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11-5 Linkage and Gene Maps

V. Linkage and gene

maps
3. It is the chromosomes,
however, that assort
independently not individual
genes.

4. Mendel DID miss gene linkage.

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11-5 Linkage and Gene Maps

V. Linkage and gene

maps
5. Even though if two genes are
found on the same chromosome
this does not mean they are linked
forever. Crossing over can occur.

6. Crossing over creates genetic

diversity.

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11-5 Linkage and Gene Maps

V. Linkage and gene

maps
7. A gene map
shows the relative
location of each
gene. See page
280 figure 11.9

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11-5 Linkage and Gene Maps

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Alleles, alternative versions of a
gene

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Pedigree analysis

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Testing a fetus for genetic disorders

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