UNIT 4

Passband Transmission
System
 DIGITAL SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
Introduction
There are basically two types of transmission of Digital Signals
Baseband data transmission Pass band data transmission
1. Digital data is transmitted over • Digital data transmitted using a
the channel directly high frequency carrier
2. No modulation is done • Modulation is done
3. Suitable for transmission over • Suitable for transmission over
short distance long distances
4. Eg audio and Video signal • ASK,FSK,PSK
 Requirements of Pass band Advantages of Pass band
Transmission Scheme Transmission over Baseband
transmission
•  Maximum Data transmission
rate •  Long Distance Transmission
•  Minimum Probability of •  Analog Channels, can be used
for Transmission
symbol error
•  Multiplexing techniques can be
•  Minimum Transmitted power
used for BW conservation.
•  Minimum Channel Bandwidth •  Problems such as ISI and
•  Maximum resistance to crosstalk are absent
interfering signals •  Pass band transmission can take
•  Minimum circuit complexity place over wireless channels also.
Types of Reception for Pass band Transmissio
Two Types of methods for detection of pass band signals

Coherent (Synchronous) Detection: Non Coherent (Envelope) Detection:

• The local carrier generated at the • The receiver carrier need not be
receiver is phase locked with the phase locked with the transmitter
carrier at the transmitter. carrier.
• Hence called Synchronous • It is called Envelope detection.
Detection. • It is simple but it has higher
probability of error.
Types of Pass band Modulation

• The digital data can modulate phase, frequency or amplitude of carrier. This
gives rise
• to three basic techniques:
•  Phase Shift Keying (PSK): The digital data modulates the phase of the
carrier.
•  Frequency Shift Keying(FSK): The digital data modulates the frequency of
the
• carrier.
•  Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): The digital modulates the amplitude of the
carrier.
AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING
-Amplitude is varied based on the
symbol
-Prone to Noise

FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING

-Frequency is varied based on the
symbol
-Needs Larger Bandwidth

PHASE SHIFT KEYING

-Phase is varied based on the
symbol
-Robust against interfernce
COMPARISON OF ASK ,FSK and PSK
PARAMETER ASK FSK PSK
Variable Amplitude Frequency Phase
Characteristics
Bandwidth 2fb 4fb 2fb
Noise Immunity Low High High
Prob of Error High Low Low
Performance in Poor Better than ASK Better than Both
presence of
noise
System Simple Moderately Very Complex
Complexity Complex
Bit rate 100 Bps 1200Bps Higher Bit rate
GENERATION OF FSK
Coherent Binary FSK
• In a binary FSK system symbol ‘1’ and ‘0’ are transmitted as

Frequency for some fixed integer nc and i=1, 2

The basic functions are given by

Therefore FSK is characterized by two dimensional signal space with two message
points i.e. N=2 and m=2.
The two message points are defined by the signal vector
• The incoming binary data sequence is applied to on-off level
encoder.
• The output of encoder is √Eb volts for symbol 1 and 0 volts for
symbol ‘0’.

• When we have symbol 1 the upper channel is switched on with

oscillator frequency f1, for symbol ‘0’, because of inverter the
lower channel is switched on with oscillator frequency f2.

• These two frequencies are combined using an adder circuit and

then transmitted.
DETECTION OF FSK
•The detector consists of two correlators.
•The incoming noisy BFSK signal x(t) is common to both
correlator.
•The Coherent reference signal Փ1(t) and Փ2(t) are supplied to
upper and lower correlators respectively.
•The correlator outputs are then subtracted one from the other
and resulting a random vector ‘l’ (l=x1 - x2).
•The output ‘l’ is compared with threshold of zero volts.
• If l > 0, the receiver decides in favor of symbol 1.
• l < 0, the receiver decides in favor of symbol 0.
Probability of Error Calculation
In binary FSK system the basic functions are given by

The transmitted signals S1(t) and S2(t) are given by

SIGNAL SPACE DIAGRAM
The two message points are defined by the signal vector

The observation vector x1 and x2 ( output of upper and lower correlator) are related to
input signal x(t) as

• Assuming zero mean additive white Gaussian noise with input PSD No/2 with
variance No/2
• The new observation vector ‘l’ is the difference of two random variables x1 & x2.
l = x1 – x2
•

The probability of error is given by

Put
 Similarly

The total probability of error

Assuming 1’s & 0’s with equal probabilities

COHERENT PSK
• In a Coherent binary PSK system the pair of signals S1(t) and S2(t) are used to represent binary symbol ‘1’
and ‘0’ respectively.

• Where Eb= Average energy transmitted per bit

• In the case of PSK, there is only one basic function of Unit energy which is given by
• Therefore the transmitted signals are given by

A Coherent BPSK is characterized by having a signal space that is one dimensional (N=1) with two message
points (M=2)
COHERENT PSK-GENERATION
PSK GENERATION
•
DETECTION OF PSK
PSK DETECTION
• The noisy PSK signal x(t) to a Correlator, which is also supplied with a locally generated coherent reference
signal Φ1(t).

• The correlator output x1 is compared with a threshold of zero volt.

If x1 > 0, the receiver decides in favor of symbol 1.

If x1 < 0, the receiver decides in favor of symbol 0.

Probability of Error Calculation
• In BPSK system the basic function is given by

• The signals S1(t) and S2(t) are given by

SIGNAL SPACE DIAGRAM
The observation vector x1 is related to the received signal x(t) by

If the observation element falls in the region R1, a decision will be made in favor
of symbol ‘1’. If it falls in region R2 a decision will be made in favor of symbol ‘0’.
The error is of two types
1) Pe(0/1) i.e. transmitted as ‘1’ but received as ‘0’ and
2) Pe(1/0) i.e. transmitted as ‘0’ but received as ‘1’.
•
The total probability of error assuming
probability of 1’s and 0’s are equal.
 QUADRIPHASE-SHIFT KEYING
• An important goal of digital communication is the efficient utilization of
channel bandwidth.
• Attained by a bandwidth-conserving modulation scheme known as
quadriphase-shift keying.
• In quadriphase-shift keying (QPSK), as with BPSK, information carried by
the transmitted signal is contained in the phase of a sinusoidal carrier.
• The phase of the sinusoidal carrier takes on one of four equally spaced
values, such π/4, 3 π/4, 5 π/4, 7 π/4
• For this set of values, the transmitted signal is defined as
(1)

E is the transmitted energy per QPSK symbol, and

T is the symbol duration.
 Vector Analysis
• Using trigonometric identity, Recast the transmitted signal in the
interval in the expanded form
(2)

• There are two orthonormal basis functions ,

defined as

(3)
(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)
 Signal Space Characteristics of
• For each possible value of the QPSK
index i, Eqs. (5) and 7) identity the
corresponding dibit as in table
Two-dimensional signal space diagram of
QPSK
 GENERATION OF QPSK SIGNALS
To generate the QPSK signal, the incoming binary data stream is first
converted into polar form by a non-return-to-zero level encoder;
the encoder output is denoted by b(t).
Symbols 1 and 0 are thereby represented
by
Resulting binary wave is next divided by
means of a demultiplexer (consisting of a
serial- to-parallel converter) into two
separate binary waves (a1(t), a2(t))
consisting of the odd- and even
numbered inputbinary
Demultiplexed bits of b(t)
waves and are used to
modulate the pair of
quadrature carriers
Finally, the two BPSK signals are
subtracted to produce the desired
QPSK signals
 DETECTION OF QPSK SIGNALS
❖ The QPSK receiver consists of an in-phase (I)-channel and quadrature
(Q)-channel with
a common
❖ Each input
channel is itself made up of a product modulator, low-pass
filter, sampler, and decision-making device.
❖ Under ideal conditions, the I-
and Q-channels of the receiver,
respectively, recover the
demultiplexed components

❖ Responsible for modulating the

orthogonal pair of carriers in the
transmitter.

❖ Applying the outputs of these

two channels to a multiplexer
(consisting of a parallel-to-serial
converter),
 Example
❖ Binary sequence 01101000 is divided into two other
sequences – Two Waveforms may individually be viewed as a
BPSK signal
 Error probability of QPSK

❖ As a coherent QPSK is equivalent to two coherent binary PSK

systems working in parallel and using two carriers that are in phase
quadrature.

❖ Hence, the average probability of bit error in each channel of the

coherent QPSK system is
❖Bit error in the in-phase and quadrature channels of the coherent QPSK
system are statistically independent,
❖Average probability of a correct decision resulting from the combined
action of the two channels is

❖ The average probability of symbol error for coherent QPSK is

therefore
❖ In a QPSK system, since there are two bits per symbol, the
transmitted signal energy per symbol is twice the signal energy per
bit,
E = 2Eb
and then

❖ With Gray encoding, the bit error rate

of QPSK is

❖ Therefore, a coherent QPSK system achieves the same average

probability of bit error as a coherent binary PSK system for the
same bit rate and the same Eb / No but uses only half the channel
bandwidth.
 Phase-modulated signals (π/4-Shifted
QPSK)
❖ The carrier phase used for the
transmission of successive
symbols is alternately picked
from one of the two QPSK
constellations in the following
figure and then the other.
❖ It follows that a π/4-shifted
QPSK signal may reside in any
one of eight possible phase
states:
• Attractive features of the π/4-shifted QPSK scheme
• The phase transitions from one symbol to the next are restricted to ±π/4
and ±3π/4.
• Envelope variations due to filtering are significantly reduced.
• π/4-shifted QPSK signals can be noncoherently detected, thereby
considerably simplifying the receiver design.
• Like QPSK signals, π/4-shifted QPSK can be differently encoded, in which
case we should really speak of π/4- shifted DQPSK .
• The input dibit does not determine the absolute phase, but the phase
change.

The phase transition is restricted to either 45 or 135 degree.

• No 0 degree phase transition occurs now!
• Noncoherent receiver is feasible.
Detection of π/4-Shifted DQPSK
Signal
Detection of π/4-Shifted DQPSK
Signal
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
■ In MPSK, the in-phase and quadrature components
are interrelated in a way that the envelop is constant
■ M-ary quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)
❑ The in-phase and quadrature components are independent
❑ A two-dimensional generalization of M-ary PAM
❑ Let the i-th message point si in the (Φ1, Φ2) Plane be
denoted by (ai dmin/2, bi dmin/2), with
■ nin 0
■ dmin = min||si – sj|| ∀ i, j=1,…,M
■ ai and bi are integers, and i ∈ {0, ±1, ±2,…}
0
i 0 i c
i c
51
❑ There are two distinct QAM constellations:
■ Square constellations for which the number of bits/symbol is
even, namely, log2M is even such that M = 4, 16, 64,…
■ Cross constellations for which the number of bits/symbol is
odd, namely, log2M is odd such that M = 2, 8, 32,…
❑ QAM square constellations
■ An M-ary QAM constellation can be viewed as the Cartesian
product of an L-ary, ( ), PAM constellation with itself
■ The message point si in the (Φ1 , Φ2) plane are
i i

52
 ❑ Example: a 16-QAM
■ The left-most 2 bits of the 4 bits specify the quadrant in the
(Φ1 , Φ2) plane
■ Encoding of the 4 quadrants
and also encoding of the
symbols in each quadrant
follow the Gray coding rule
■ The message point si are

53
❑ The error probability of M-ary QAM square constellations
■ Recall the symbol error rate (SER) of L-ary PAM,

-E0 E0

■ For inner points, their error probability is 2 2 0

■ For outer points, the error probability is 1 2 0

0

■ Therefore, the SER of L-ary PAM is 0

u M–2 E0 2 E0 M– E0
M 1 1
e N0
N0 M N0 M u
■ The SER of MQAM is e c
2 u e
1 𝐸0 2 e
𝑃e ≅ erfc
� 𝑁0
2 1 54
�
−
 ■ The symbol energy in MQAM is a variable such that it is
more logical to express Pe in terms of average symbol energy
■ Assume the L amplitude levels of the in-phase and quadrature
components are equally likely
■ It suffices to evaluate the average symbol energy for the L2/2
signal points in one quadrant only, which is given by
L/2 L/2 2
2 0 2
av 0
i=1 i=1
2 2
■ As a result, av L2–1 E 3
0 M–1 E0 3
1 3Eav
■ Accordingly, e M N0

❑ The case of M=4 is the same to QPSK

55
❑ QAM cross constellations
■ Start with a QAM square constellation with n-1 bits/symbol
■ Extend each side of the QAM square constellation by adding
2n-1/4 symbols, while ignore the corners in the extension
■ It is not possible to express a
QAM cross constellation as
the product of a PAM
constellation with itself
■ Also it is not possible to Gray
code a QAM cross constellation
■ The calculation of the SER
is involved, for high E0/N0
1 E0
e 2M
N0
56
■ The power spectral of MPSK or MQAM
❑ Until now, we assume the passband basis functions Φ1 t)
and Φ(2 t) use a rectangular pulse for pulse shaping
function
❑ The pulse shaping function g(t) of BPSK is given by

❑ Assume the input binary wave at the modulator is random with

symbols 0 and 1 equally likely, and with symbols transmitted
during adjacent time slots being statistically independent
❑ Either the in-phase or quadrature components are +g(t) or − g(t)
❑ Hence, the in-phase and quadrature components have a common
power spectral density, namely, 2Esin2(πTf) / (πTf ) 2 = 2E 57
sinc2(Tf)
■ How do we calculate the power spectral density (PSD)
of a BPSK signal with symbol duration T sec at fc?
❑ The Fourier transformation of the signal of ± g(t) × Φ1 t)
is equal to the convolution of F{± g(t)} ⊗ F{Φ (1 t)}
❑ For the carrier, we have F{Φ (1 t)} = ½ [δ( f + fc) + δ( f −
fc)]
❑ For the pulse shaping function, we have

F{g(t)}

❑ The energy spectral density of g(t) is

F {g(t)} = 2Esin2 (πTf ) / T (πf ) 2
❑ Therefore, the PSD of g(t) is 2Esin2(πTf) / (πTf ) 2 = 2E 58

sinc2(Tf)
❑ How do we extend this notion to a sequence of pulses?
❑ We can study the autocorrelation function of a binary random
sequence of 1s and 0s represented by the values of ±A
❑ Denote the sequence by x(t) = ± g(t kT), 0≤ t kT <
T, k ∈Z
(τ) =
❑ Use the autocorrelation
to examine function
the correlation of the trandom
E{x(t)x(t + τ)} at any time
sequence
difference τ

❑ Clearly,

❑ is a correlation power with respect to the symbol rate

❑ The FFT of } is the PSD
F{ =
❑ We know that 59
❑ Or we may consider another case where we try to find the
correlation between the original sequence and it delayed
version

■ The delay td of the sequence is uniformly distributed over [0, T]

■ The random variables X(t) has E[X(t)]=0, ∀t
■ For random variables X(tk) and X(ti) observed at times tk and ti
2 tk 𝑑
we have X(tk)X(ti) td

■ Where 1
for 0 ≤ ti
Td
t T
≤T
d
d 6
0
■ As a result,
T– 2 2
X(tk)X(ti) Td d tk
tk–ti
0
d ti
when tk
■ Clearly, the autocorrelation function is only a function of the
ti <T
time difference ti . Therefore, we have
tk

2
X
■ The Fourier transform of X is therefore
T
2
X
–T
2
■ Where is also the PSD of the sequence 2

61
■ For a random binary wave in which symbols 1 and 0 are
represented by pulses g(t) and −g(t), the energy
density(ESD),
spectral g , of g(t)g is equal to the PSD, , of
g(t) times the symbol duration T, i.e.
■ g g(t) 2 2
g
2 2

62
❑ For BPSK, the baseband PSD is given by
2
b 2
b b

❑ For MPSK, the in-phase and quadrature components are

statically independent. The baseband PSD is thus equal to

( b
63
 ❑ For QAM square constellation,
■ Bandwidth efficiency of MPSK or MQAM
❑ The main lobe of the PSD is defined bounded between the
null-to-null bandwidth as shown in the previous two
slides
❑ Therefore, for the passband basis functions, (1 t) and (2 t),
the channel bandwidth required to pass the main spectral
lobe of an M-ary signal is given by B = 2/T,
❑
❑T is the symbol
Let , then duration, which is equal to
b
❑ The bandwidth efficiency bof an M-ary signal is thus given by

64
■ Carrierless amplitude/phase modulation
❑ In general, we would define the transmitted M-ary QAM
signal in terms of a general pulse-shaping function g(t) as

where , and k ∈ {0, ±1, ±2,…}

❑ The transmitted M-ary QAM signal s(t) for an infinite
succession of symbols is thus given by
œ

k
k=–œ
œ

k c k c
k=–œ

65
❑ It is assumed that fc has an arbitrary value w.r.t. 1/T
❑ The passband functions and
thus become aperiodic
❑ How can we eliminate the time variations of these
passband functions from symbol to symbol?
❑ Let us rewrite s(t) in an equivalent form of
œ

k k c
k=–œ
❑ Define . The signal s(t) can be rewritten as
œ
k c c
k=–œ

66
❑ Define 𝑘 , which is a rotated version
of the complex representation of the k-th symbol
❑ And define
❑ We assume is a low-pass signal whose highest
frequency component is smaller than the carrier frequency
, namely, for the
band-pass signal
,
its magnitude
spectrum G(f) is like

❑ is referred to as the analytic signal, or pre-envelope,

representation of the band-pass signal
67
❑ Specifically, is expressed as
+ c c
❑ The quadrature component of the is,
signalthe Hilbert transform of the in-phase component
thus,
❑ For a signal with Fourier transform
■ The Hilbert transform of , is defined by
œ

–œ
■ The inverse Hilbert transform is defined by
œ

–œ 1
■ can be interpreted as the convolution of with nt
1
■ The Fourier transform of is –j sgn(f)
nt
68
 ■ As a result, we have –j sgn(f)
❑ The Hilbert transform shifts all positive frequencies of the
input signal by −90°, and +90° for all negative
frequencies
❑ The magnitude spectrum of the pre-envelope function
is equal to , and is shown below

69
❑ Back to the pulse shaping function
■ is referred to as the baseband pulse
■ c is the passband in-phase pulse
■ c is the passband quadrature pulse
❑ With 𝑘 and , we redefine the transmitted signal as

■ The transmitted signal s(t) appears to be carrierless

■ The signal s(t) represents a symbol-time-invariant realization
of M-ary QAM signal
■ Given a prescribed c, the receiver need only detect
by reversesince
rotations, we have k 𝑘 c
𝑘

7
0
❑ In practice, however, the rotations are ignored as they do not
have any bearing on operation and performance of the
hybrid modulation system
❑ Accordingly, we may redefine the transmitted signal as
œ
𝑘 +
k=–œ
œ

k k
k=–œ
œ

k k
k=–œ
❑ This transmitted signal is referred to as carrierless
amplitude/phase (CAP) modulation
71
■ Properties of the passband in-phase and quadrature pulses
❑ and are even and odd functions of time t,
respectively, given that the baseband pulse is an
even function of time t
❑ and form an orthogonal set over (−∞, ∞),
namely
œ
–œ
■ Proof: By Parseval’s Theorem
œ œ
∗
–œ –œ
œ œ
∗ 2
–œ –œ
■ Since is an even function of f, is an odd
function of and f, the integration
72
is zero
❑ Let and pass through a linear time-invariant
channel of impulse response h(t), yielding
and
❑ The passband pulses and form a Hilbert
transform pair, and are therefore orthogonal over (−∞, ∞)
as
–œ œ œ –œ
œ ∗
∗ ∗
–œ
œ
2 2
–œ
■ It is this property that makes it possible for the CAP receiver
to separate the transmitted real and imaginary symbols, ak and
bk , given the channel output
73
■ Block diagram of the CAP transmitter

❑ If s(t) passes through a channel with an impulse response h(t)

œ
k k
k=–œ
œ
k k
k=–œ
74
■ Example: Raised-cosine family of pulse shaping functions
❑ Consider a baseband raised cosine (RC) filter with a rolloff
factor α and bandwidth W=1/2T

2 2
2

❑ Suppose = 0.2 (i.e. excess bandwidth of 20%)

75
❑ and for fcT = 0.5(1+α) = 0.6 are shown below

76
■ Block diagram of the CAP receiver

❑ Use an equalizer to compensate for channel dispersion

77
■ Digital implementation of the CAP receiver

78