LECTURE 2:

Spatial Data
Input
 Spatial Data

Spatial Data Sources

Outli
ne
Data Input Methods

Coordinate Systems

UP Department of Geodetic Engineering 2

RECALL
Spatial
Data

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 Spatial or GIS Data
GIS integrates data from many sources,
of various forms

107’
Vectors
Topology Dimensions

Surveys
ABC

Networks
Images Annotation
CAD
27 Main St.
Drawings

3D ObjectsAddresses Attributes
Terrain
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Spatial or GIS Data
Data Models in GIS..
REAL WORLD

Field-based Object-based
model model

Raster data Vector data

model model
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GIS Data
Capture

UP Department of Geodetic Engineering 6

 GIS Data
•Capture
Primary Data Capture*
•In-house creation of data (any
survey, photogrammetry, image
analysis)
•Typically the most expensive part (~80% of project
cost)
•Secondary Data Capture*
•From maps, reports, previous projects
•DEMS from topographic map contours,
scanned
paper maps
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GIS Data Sources
•Virtually all, depending on project
needs…
•Collect your own data
•Government agencies
•Private companies
•NGOs
•Academe
•Individuals
•Internet, Geoportals, Google Earth, OSM
•News
•Telecoms
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 Maps
and
Digital Plans Paper
data files
Dat
a

GIS

Photogrammet Intervie
ry ws

Dat
a

Remote Field
GIS Data Sources survey
Sensing
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Data
Sources Topographic map

UP Department of Geodetic Engineering 10

Data
Sources Aerial photo

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Data
Sources Satellite image

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Data
Sources Ground surveys

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Secondary
Data
•Large amount of data is now available
•Always check for existing data before creating it
•Several groups of data exist
•Free data from the government
•Government data available for a fee
•Census data
•Internet map servers
•Commercial data
•Data from other GIS users

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Philippine Geoportal Project

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DOST NOAH / UP NOAH
Nationwide Operational Assessment
of Hazards

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LiPA
D
PhilG
IS

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iGISMAP

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DICT

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GIS Capabilities
RECALL
•GIS provides four sets of capabilities:
•data input
•data management (data storage
and retrieval)
•manipulation and analysis
•data output

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 GIS Data Input
•Data input can become major “bottleneck” of GIS
project
•Can cost 80% or more of project
•Labor intensive, tedious, error-prone
•Constructing the GIS data can be so large that the project is
never finished

DATA
INPUT

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GIS Data Input

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GIS Data Input
CONSIDERATIONS
The goal is to use the mode of data input that:

•best translates the source data to electronic form

•is fast
•is easy to use
•reduces cost
•maximizes the accuracy required for the GIS project

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GIS Data Input
•Need tools to transform spatial data of various types
into digital format
•Many commercial GIS operations generate most of
their revenue through data input
•There is a danger that construction of the database
may become an end in itself and the project may
not move on toanalysis of the data
collected

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GIS Data Input
•involves encoding both the locational and attribute
data

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GIS Data Input
•involves encoding both the locational and attribute
data
o locational data is encoded as coordinates on a particular
Cartesian coordinate system
o Source maps may have different projections and scales
o Several stages of data transformation may be needed to
bring all data to a common coordinate system
o Attribute data is often obtained and stored in tables
(Database Management System)

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Input
Methods
Manual Vector Input
1. Digitizing
 Manual Digitizing
(1) Digitizing Tablet
(2) On Screen Digitizing (Heads-up Digitizing)
 Automated Digitizing
 Scanning and vectorization
2. Text Files
3. COGO (Coordinate Geometry)

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Digitizing
•Digitizing is the process where features on a map or
image are converted into digital format for use in
GIS.
•Digitizing converts the features on the map into
three basic data types:
 Points
 Lines 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Real World
600

 Polygons 1 10
2
3 B
B
B
G
G G 500
Trees

400
4 BG G Trees
Y-AXIS
5 B G G
300
6 B G BK House
7 B 200
8 B B G River
9 B 100

10 B 100 200 300 400 500 600

X-AXIS

Raster Representation Vector Representation

Source: Defense Mapping School
National Imagery and Mapping Agency
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 Tablet Digitizing
• Tablet digitizing requires a person to enter coordinate information
through the use of a digitizing tablet and digitizing puck

• A digitizing tablet is a hardened surface with a fine electrical wire grid under
the surface.
• A digitizing puck is an electrical device with cross hairs and multiple buttons
to
perform data entry operations
• An operator then enters the information using the puck.

©Arthur J. Lembo 31
Cornell University
On-Screen
Digitizing
• On-screen or Heads up digitizing is a combination of scanning and
manual digitizing.

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On-Screen
Digitizing
The main steps in heads up digitizing typically include:

•Scanning the map – a user can scan the map at a high

resolution.
•Registering the map – using transformation methods, the user
can enter control points on screen and transform the scanned
image to real world coordinates.
•Digitizing the map – the user can zoom to specific areas on
screen and trace points, lines, or polygons on the map.
Because the maps are already in the correct geographic
coordinate system anything digitized on top of the map will
also be in the correct coordinate system.

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 Digitizing -
•registration
Requires selecting control points (locations on the map that have real
world coordinates assigned to them. You may hear people call these “tic”
marks.
• After control points are selected, a match between the map coordinates
and the real world coordinates are established and a mathematical
relationship is formed.

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Manifold
 Digitizing -
•transformation
The map coordinates are then transformed to real world coordinates
through the mathematical relationship

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Automated Digitizing
•Tools to automatically convert a raster scan to vector lines
•Requires a very clean scan
•Scans can be cleaned using raster cleanup tools
•The vector files usually require cleanup after conversion
•If you start with a clean image it can save a lot of time
•If your image is not clean, manual digitizing may be faster

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 Scanning
• An automated means of digitizing. A raster image file is created and
automated or manual tracing is needed.

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 ScanniManual
Manual Automatic
ng

Image-editing software GIS software:

ArcGIS, QGIS, ILWIS

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Scanning problems
 Higher resolutions are not always the answer to better data;
additional “noise” are introduced to scanned maps
- manual clean up
- clean up of these “noise” may result to loss of significant
details or addition of unnecessary details

 Paper maps are not dimensionally stable and a great deal of

variation occurs as the maps age

 Documents must be clean and no extra smudges/marks are

present on these maps when scanned

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Scanning problems
 Text may accidentally be scanned as line features in automatic
feature recognition

 Specialized symbols (for example marsh or asphalt) may not be

detected as such

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Digitizing vs
Scanning

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Input Errors
Common Spatial Errors from Digitizing/Scanning
•Slivers or gaps in the line work.
•Dead ends, dangling arcs, overshoots and undershoots.
•Bow ties or weird polygons caused by inappropriate closings of
connecting features.

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Input Errors
Common Spatial Errors from Digitizing/Scanning
• Incompleteness of the spatial data; missing points, line segments, and
polygons.
• Location placement errors of spatial data; careless digitizing or poor
quality of the original source.
• Distortion of spatial data; base maps that aren’t scale correct over
the
entire image or from material stretch in paper maps.
• Incorrect linkage between spatial and attribute data
• misplaced labels or unique identifiers being assigned during manual key entry or
during the initial setup.
• Attribute data is wrong or incomplete; missing data records or data
records from different time periods.
• Redundant information, including vertices, text, nodes, and arcs.
• Incorrect label information and placement. 43
Input
Errors
Common Spatial Errors from Digitizing
• Paper maps can stretch/ shrink; Lose accuracy.
• Paper maps meant to display information, not record locational (x,y) information.
• Discrepancies across map sheets to digitize (i.e. roads do not match when 2 maps
digitized.)
• User error such as overshoots, undershoots, or spikes

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Importing Vector
Data
Text Files or Manual Entry
• If you have a text file or table with X,Y values you can directly import
them into ArcGIS.
• Excel or Access (Or other DB)
• GPS Data

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Importing Vector
Data
COGO and Survey Analyst
• COGO Coordinate Geometry
• Extension for Command line ArcInfo
• Survey Analyst
• ArcGIS Extension
• Both extensions allow direct input of survey data

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 Coordinate
•Systems
A geographical coordinate system uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to
define locations on the earth.
• Divides space into orderly structure of locations.
• Two types: cartesian and angular (spherical)

Geographic/global coordinate system  Latitude/Longitude

Cartesian/planar coordinate system 
Northing/Easting/Elevation
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Coordinate
Systems
latitude (φ):
angular distance
from equator; along
Y axis

longitude (λ):
angular distance
from standard
meridian;
along X axis

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Datu
m
Horizontal Datums

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 Datu
•m provides a frame of reference for measuring locations on the
surface of the Earth
• chosen to align a spheroid to closely fit the Earth’s surface in a
particular area
Examples

UP Department of Geodetic Engineering 50

 Datu
m
Examples

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Projection
• Function is to define how positions on the Earth’s curved
surface are transformed into a flat map surface
Geographic coordinates (Φ,λ) to Cartesian coordinates (x,y)

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 Projection
• a systematic transformation of the latitudes and longitudes of locations on
the surface of a sphere or an ellipsoid into locations on a plane.
• necessary for creating maps; maps are models and are generalized
representations of reality.
• All map projections distort the surface, each projection distorts
differently.

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Projection
Based on size, shape, and geographical location of the
area

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Projection
Based on size, shape, and geographical location of the
area

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Projection
Based on size, shape, and geographical location of the
area

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Projection
Based on size, shape, and geographical location of the
area

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Projection
Commonly used Projections in GIS

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

• Based on the Mercator projection but the cylinder is
transverse rather than normal
• A secant projection
• Map is divided into 60 zones, each 6° wide
• Problematic for areas at high latitudes and places that
are located in two zones
• Commonly used for military applications and for
mapping at a global or national coverage

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Projection
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

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Projection
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

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Projection
Philippine Transverse Mercator (PTM)

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 Projection and
Transformation
Geometric Transformation
• The process of converting a map or an
image from one coordinate system to
another by using a set of control points
and a transformation equation. (Chang)

Geometric transformation and georeferencing often involves:

scaling, rotating, and warping an image to a giving set of geographic or projected coordinates

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Projection and
Transformation
Quantification: Root Mean Square Error
•Deviation between the actual location and
the estimated location of the control points.

•Error for a control point is

•Average RMS is

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Projection and
Transformation
Quantification: Root Mean Square Error

The residuals are the distances between the input and retransformed
coordinates in one direction.

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Thank you for your
attention!
Any questions?

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