CHAPTER ONE

macro Consumption

macroeconomics
fifth edition

N. Gregory Mankiw
PowerPoint® Slides
by Ron Cronovich

© 2004 Worth Publishers, all rights reserved

 Chapter overview
This chapter surveys the most prominent work
on consumption.
 John Maynard Keynes: consumption and
current income
 Irving Fisher: Intertemporal Choice
 Franco Modigliani: the Life-Cycle Hypothesis
 Milton Friedman: the Permanent Income
Hypothesis
 Robert Hall: the Random-Walk Hypothesis
 David Laibson: the pull of instant gratification

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 2

 Keynes’s Conjectures
1. 0 < MPC < 1

2. Average propensity to consume

(APC ) falls as income rises.
(APC = C/Y )

3. Income is the main determinant of

consumption.

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 3

The Keynesian Consumption Function
Here’s a consumption function with
C the properties Keynes conjectured:

C C  cY

c c = MPC
= slope of
1
the
C consumpti
on function

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 4

The Keynesian Consumption Function
As income rises, the APC falls (consumers
C save a bigger fraction of their income).

C C  cY

C C
APC    c
Y Y

slope =
APC Y

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 5

Early Empirical Successes:
Results from Early Studies
 Households with higher incomes:
 consume more
 MPC > 0
 save more
 MPC < 1
 save a larger fraction of their income
 APC  as Y 
 Very strong correlation between income
and consumption
 income seemed to be the main
determinant of consumption
CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 6
Problems for the
Keynesian Consumption Function
Based on the Keynesian consumption
function, economists predicted that C
would grow more slowly than Y over
time.
This prediction did not come true:
 As incomes grew, the APC did not fall,
and C grew just as fast.
 Simon Kuznets showed that C/Y was
very stable in long time series data.

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 7

 The Consumption Puzzle

Consumption function
C from long time series
data (constant APC )

Consumption function
from cross-sectional
household data
(falling APC )

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 8

Irving Fisher and Intertemporal Choice
 The basis for much subsequent work on
consumption.
 Assumes consumer is forward-looking and
chooses consumption for the present and
future to maximize lifetime satisfaction.
 Consumer’s choices are subject to an
intertemporal budget constraint,
a measure of the total resources available
for present and future consumption

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 9

 The basic two-period model
 Period 1: the present
 Period 2: the future
 Notation
Y1 is income in period 1
Y2 is income in period 2
C1 is consumption in period 1
C2 is consumption in period 2
S = Y1  C1 is saving in period 1
(S < 0 if the consumer borrows in period
1)
CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 10
Deriving the
intertemporal budget constraint
 Period 2 budget constraint:
C 2 Y2  (1  r ) S
Y2  (1  r ) (Y1  C1)

 Rearrange to put C terms on one side

and Y terms on the other:
(1  r ) C1  C 2 Y2  (1  r )Y1

 Finally, divide through by (1+r ):

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 11

The intertemporal budget constraint

C2 Y2
C1   Y1 
1 r 1 r

present value of present value

lifetime of lifetime
consumption income

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 12

 The intertemporal budget constraint

C2
The budget
constraint
shows all Consump
combinations Savin = income
g in both
of C1 and C2
periods
that just Y2
exhaust the Borrowin
consumer’s g
resources.
C1
Y1

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 13

The intertemporal budget constraint

C2
The slope of
the budget
line equals
(1+r ) 1
(1+r )

Y2

C1
Y1

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 14

 Consumer preferences

C2 Higher
An indifference
curve shows all
indifference
combinations of curves
C1 and C2 that represent
higher levels
make the
of happiness.
consumer
equally happy.
IC2

IC1
C1

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 15

 Consumer preferences

C2 The slope of
an
Marginal rate of indifference
substitution (MRS ): curve at any
the amount of C2 point equals
consumer would be 1 the MRS
willing to substitute MRS at that point.
for one unit of C1.

IC1
C1

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 16

 Optimization

C2
The optimal (C1,C2) At the
is where the budget optimal point,
line just touches MRS = 1+r
the highest
indifference curve.
O

C1

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 17

 How C responds to changes in Y

C2 An increase in Y1 or Y2
Results: shifts the budget line
Provided they are outward.
both normal goods,
C1 and C2 both
increase,
…regardless of
whether the
income
increase occurs
C1
in period 1 or
period 2.
CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 18
 Keynes vs. Fisher
 Keynes:
current consumption depends only on
current income
 Fisher:
current consumption depends only on
the present value of lifetime income;
the timing of income is irrelevant
because the consumer can borrow or
lend between periods.

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 19

 How C responds to changes in r
C2
An increase in r
pivots the budget
line around the
point (Y1,Y2 ).
B

As depicted here, A
C1 falls and C2 rises.
However, it could Y2
turn out differently…
Y1
C1

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 20

How C responds to changes in r
 income effect
If consumer is a saver, the rise in r makes
him better off, which tends to increase
consumption in both periods.
 substitution effect
The rise in r increases the opportunity cost of
current consumption, which tends to reduce
C1 and increase C2.
 Both effects C2.
Whether C1 rises or falls depends on the
relative size of the income & substitution
effects.
CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 21
 Constraints on borrowing
 In Fisher’s theory, the timing of income is irrelevant
because the consumer can borrow and lend across
periods.
 Example: If consumer learns that her future income
will increase, she can spread the extra consumption
over both periods by borrowing in the current
period.
 However, if consumer faces borrowing
constraints (aka “liquidity constraints”), then she
may not be able to increase current consumption
and her consumption may behave as in the
Keynesian theory even though she is rational &
forward-looking

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 22

 Constraints on borrowing

C2

The budget
line with no
borrowing
constraints

Y2

Y1 C1

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 23

 Constraints on borrowing

The borrowing C2
constraint takes
the form:
The budget
C 1  Y1 line with a
borrowing
constraint
Y2

Y1 C1

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 24

 Consumer optimization when the
borrowing constraint is not binding
C2

The borrowing
constraint is
not binding if
the consumer’s
optimal C1
is less than Y1.

Y1 C1

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 25

 Consumer optimization when the
borrowing constraint is binding

The optimal C2
choice is at
point D.
But since the
consumer
cannot borrow,
the best he E
can do is point D
E.

Y1 C1

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 26

 The Life-Cycle Hypothesis
 due to Franco Modigliani (1950s)
 Fisher’s model says that consumption
depends on lifetime income, and people
try to achieve smooth consumption.
 The LCH says that income varies
systematically over the phases of the
consumer’s “life cycle,”
and saving allows the consumer to
achieve smooth consumption.

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 27

 The Life-Cycle Hypothesis
 The basic model:
W = initial wealth
Y = annual income until retirement
(assumed constant)
R = number of years until retirement
T = lifetime in years
 Assumptions:
– zero real interest rate (for simplicity)
– consumption-smoothing is optimal

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 28

 The Life-Cycle Hypothesis
 Lifetime resources = W + RY
 To achieve smooth consumption,
consumer divides her resources equally
over time:
C = (W + RY )/T , or
C = W + Y
where
 = (1/T ) is the marginal propensity to
consume out of wealth
 = (R/T ) is the marginal propensity to
consume out of income
CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 29
Implications of the Life-Cycle Hypothesis
The Life-Cycle Hypothesis can solve the
consumption puzzle:
 The APC implied by the life-cycle
consumption function is
C/Y = (W/Y ) + 
 Across households, wealth does not
vary as much as income, so high
income households should have a lower
APC than low income households.
 Over time, aggregate wealth and
income grow together, causing APC to
remain stable.
CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 30
Implications of the Life-Cycle Hypothesis
$
The LCH
implies that
saving Wealth
varies
systematical
ly over a Income
person’s
lifetime. Saving

Consumption Dissaving

Retirement End
begins of life
CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 31
The Permanent Income Hypothesis
 due to Milton Friedman (1957)
 The PIH views current income Y as the
sum of two components:
permanent income Y P
(average income, which people
expect to persist into the future)
transitory income Y T
(temporary deviations from average
income)

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 32

The Permanent Income Hypothesis
 Consumers use saving & borrowing to
smooth consumption in response to
transitory changes in income.
 The PIH consumption function:
C = Y P

where  is the fraction of permanent

income that people consume per year.

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 33

The Permanent Income Hypothesis
The PIH can solve the consumption puzzle:
 The PIH implies
APC = C/Y = Y P/Y
 To the extent that high income
households have higher transitory income
than low income households, the APC will
be lower in high income households.
 Over the long run, income variation is due
mainly if not solely to variation in
permanent income, which implies a stable
APC.

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 34

 PIH vs. LCH
 In both, people try to achieve smooth
consumption in the face of changing
current income.
 In the LCH, current income changes
systematically as people move through
their life cycle.
 In the PIH, current income is subject to
random, transitory fluctuations.
 Both hypotheses can explain the
consumption puzzle.

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 35

 The Random-Walk Hypothesis
 due to Robert Hall (1978)
 based on Fisher’s model & PIH, in which
forward-looking consumers base
consumption on expected future income
 Hall adds the assumption of rational
expectations, that people use all
available information to forecast future
variables like income.

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 36

 The Random-Walk Hypothesis
 If PIH is correct and consumers have
rational expectations, then consumption
should follow a random walk: changes in
consumption should be unpredictable.
• A change in income or wealth that was
anticipated has already been factored
into expected permanent income, so it
will not change consumption.
• Only unanticipated changes in income or
wealth that alter expected permanent
income will change consumption.

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 37

Implication of the R-W Hypothesis

IfIf consumers
consumers obeyobey the
the PIH
PIH
and
and have
have rational
rational
expectations,
expectations, thenthen policy
policy
changes
changes
will
will affect
affect consumption
consumption
only
only ifif they
they are
are unanticipated.
unanticipated.

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 38

The Psychology of Instant Gratification
 Theories from Fisher to Hall assumes
that consumers are rational and act to
maximize lifetime utility.
 recent studies by David Laibson and
others consider the psychology of
consumers.

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 39

The Psychology of Instant Gratification
 Consumers consider themselves to be
imperfect decision-makers.
– E.g., in one survey, 76% said they
were not saving enough for
retirement.
 Laibson: The “pull of instant
gratification” explains why people
don’t save as much as a perfectly
rational lifetime utility maximizer
would save.

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 40

Two Questions and Time Inconsistency
1. Would you prefer
(A) a candy today, or
(B) two candies tomorrow?
2. Would you prefer
(A) a candy in 100 days, or
(B) two candies in 101 days?
In studies, most people answered A to question
1, and B to question 2.
A person confronted with question 2 may choose
B.
100 days later, when he is confronted with
question 1, the pull of instant gratification may
induce him to change his mind.
CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 41
 Summing up
 Keynes suggested that consumption
depends primarily on current income.
 Recent work suggests instead that
consumption depends on
– current income
– expected future income
– wealth
– interest rates
 Economists disagree over the relative
importance of these factors and of
borrowing constraints and psychological
factors.
CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 42
 Chapter summary
1. Keynesian consumption theory
 Keynes’ conjectures
 MPC is between 0 and 1
 APC falls as income rises
 current income is the main determinant
of current consumption
 Empirical studies
 in household data & short time series:
confirmation of Keynes’ conjectures
 in long time series data:
APC does not fall as income rises

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 43

 Chapter summary
2. Fisher’s theory of intertemporal choice
 Consumer chooses current & future
consumption to maximize lifetime
satisfaction subject to an intertemporal
budget constraint.
 Current consumption depends on lifetime
income, not current income, provided
consumer can borrow & save.
3. Modigliani’s Life-Cycle Hypothesis
 Income varies systematically over a lifetime.
 Consumers use saving & borrowing to
smooth consumption.
 Consumption depends on income & wealth.
CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 44
 Chapter summary
4. Friedman’s Permanent-Income Hypothesis
 Consumption depends mainly on
permanent income.
 Consumers use saving & borrowing to
smooth consumption in the face of
transitory fluctuations in income.
5. Hall’s Random-Walk Hypothesis
 Combines PIH with rational expectations.
 Main result: changes in consumption are
unpredictable, occur only in response to
unanticipated changes in expected
permanent income.
CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 45
 Chapter summary
6. Laibson and the pull of instant gratification
 Uses psychology to understand consumer
behavior.
 The desire for instant gratification causes
people to save less than they rationally
know they should.

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 46

CHAPTER 16 Consumption slide 47