Pathways of

Knowledge
STAGE 1
1.1 What is
knowledge, and does
it arise?
 What is knowledge and 1.1 What is

does it arise?
knowledge

Humans' curiosity about the world develop

in the creation of myths, legends and
fantastic explanations.

After these myths humans develop

rational forms to explain the world, for
example: Philosophy.

During Middle Ages and Renaissance, the

Scientific Knowledge began to develop.
 1.1 What is

Scientific knowledge

Research

Scientific research based

on the scientific method is
the main source of
knowledge nowadays.
 1.1 What is
knowledge

1.1.1 Knowledge
Knowledge refers to the set of information, ideas, and abilities that a
person acquires during life and allows them to understand, interpret
and act in the world.

Philosophy has two branches in charge of the construction of

knowledge:
• Gnoseology
• Epistemology
 1.1 What is
knowledge

Gnoseology and Epistemology

Gnoseology
Analyzes the human knowledge itself. It is focus on what is knowledge,
how is acquired, what nature is, and what conditions must be met to be
knowledge.

Epistemology
It is philosophy of science, analyzes the scientific knowledge. It is focus
on the scientific method and what scientific truth is, and how to justify
scientific statements.
 1.1 What is
knowledge

1.1.2 Elements of knowledge

Subject. Person who knows, the one who posses the knowledge or who
acquires it.

Object, is what you want to know.

Operation the act of knowing, the psychological process to contact the

object.

Representation is the image that the subject produced in his mind.

 1.1 What is
knowledge

1.1.2 Elements of knowledge

 1.1 What is
knowledge

1.1.2 Elements of knowledge

 1.1 What is

1.1.3 How Knowledge Acquired? knowledge

Main Conceptions
The origin of knowledge is one of the fundamental themes in
philosophy and epistemology.

Philosophers have debated on how we acquire knowledge and what is

the source of this knowledge.

There are two main conceptions about this origin:

Empiricism
Rationalism
Empiricism vs Rationalism
Empiricism
• It holds that all knowledge comes from sensory experience.

• Our mind is a “blank book” at birth, and the knowledge is the

result of sensory experience.

• It is associated with John Locke, George Berkeley and David Hume.

Empiricism vs Rationalism
Rationalism
• It sustains that knowledge is derived from reason and abstract
thought.

• Our mind has “innate ideas” that allow us to know the world.

• Its main representatives are Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza,

Gottfried Whilhelm Leibiniz
Empiricism vs Rationalism
Empiricism vs Rationalism
 Empiricism vs Rationalism

Which one do you think is

correct?
There are philosophers who have stated that knowledge comes from both
reality and experience.

The most influential was Immanuel Kant.

He stated that we get knowledge through experience, but our mind

applies cognitive structures to the data to organize them and make them
understandable.

Francis Bacon, and John Stuart Mill support this posture.

1.2 Types of
knowledge
 Types of
knowledge
1. Philosophical

2. Religious

3. Everyday

4. Mythical

5. Scientific

6. Logical-Mathematical
 1.2 Types of
Philosop Knowledge

hical
It focuses on the deep and abstract understanding of
the world. Based on reflection and reasoning.

Religious
It focuses on the belief of a supreme being.
Focuses on spirituality and faith. Seeks
explanations of existence and purpose of humans.
 1.2 Types of
Knowledge
Everyday
It refers to the knowledge gained through
everyday experience, observation and
interaction with the world. Focus on
practical and ordinary things.

Mythical
It is based on legends and myths. It has imaginary
and symbolic explanations. Conveys cultural values
and traditions.
 1.2 Types of
Knowledge
Scientific
It focuses on the understanding of the world using
systematic observation, experimentation, and
verification of hypothesis. It is based on empirical
evidence and seeks verifiable explanations.

Logical -
Mathematical
It is gained via abstraction processes and logical
principles, do not use the senses. Abstract
reasoning is done in a systematic and analytical
way.
 1.2 Types of

Scientific Knowledge Knowledge

characteristics
Objective: Based on verifiable facts

Verifiable: You can verify by repeating experiments and observations,

can be comparable and generalizable.

Systematic: because it is obtained through systematic process of

investigation and analysis.

Accurate: it is presented in a precise, clear and concise way.

 1.2 Types of

Scientific Knowledge Knowledge

characteristics
Universal: because it is valid at any time and place.

Explanatory: it seeks to explain natural phenomena.

Predictive: allows prediction about the future.

Fallible: because it is always subject to revision and improvement and

can be refuted or corrected.
 1.2 Types of

Scientific Knowledge Knowledge

characteristics
All these characteristics give
scientific knowledge a higher degree
of confidence, since it answers
many questions about the world.

So even when science has its

limitations, it is the most reliable
tool to obtain information.
 1.2.1 Science and
its types
1.2.1. Definition of science and
types of Science
Science is a systematic set of empirical, theoretical and
methodological knowledge

It is acquired and organized in an objective and rigorous way for

understanding and explaining the natural and social phenomena.

It is based on observation, experimentation and formulation of

theories that can be tested.
 1.2.1 Science and
its types

Types of Sciences
There are two types of sciences:

Formal Sciences, based on logic and abstract reasoning. They deal with
numbers, geometrical figures and logical laws.

Factual Sciences, based on empirical observation and

experimentation. They deal with concrete facts, such as biological
processes, properties of matter, and evolution of human sciences.
 1.2.1 Science and
Types of Sciences its types

Formal science Factual science

Ideal, abstract or interpreted entities that exist Deals with facts.
only in the human mind.

The statements consist of relationships between The statements refer mostly to extra-scientific
signs. entities: events and processes.

Demonstrates or tests. Verify hypotheses.

Self-sufficient. Requires empirical (observations or experiments)

Network of deductive, demonstrative, and

Deductive.
plausible inferences.

Limited to logic to prove its theorems Needs observation and/or

experiment.
 1.2.1 Science and

Factual Sciences are

its types

classified into:

Natural Social
Sciences Sciences
 1.2.1 Science and
its types

Natural Sciences

Focus on natural phenomena

such as physics, chemistry,
biology, geology, astronomy.

They seek to understand the

laws that govern the universe.
 1.2.1 Science and
its types

Social Sciences

Study human behaviors and

social relations (sociology,
psychology, economics, politics,
etc.).

They seek to unextend how

society works, and the factors
that influence behaviors and
decisions.
1.3 Logic and
Science
 1.3 Logic and
Science

1.3.1 The importance

of language

Language is an essential tool for

communication between living beings.

It helps to share experience emotions

and knowledge and transmit them to
the future generations..
 1.3 Logic and
Science

The importance of
language in science
With language we can formulate
hypothesis, propose theories and
evaluate them.

Science use technical language to

describe and explain with precision
and clarity different statements,
hypothesis and results.
 1.3 Logic and
1.3.2 Definition of Logic and Science

its elements
Logical reasoning is fundamental to science,
because it allows establishing casual
relationships and deducing consequences from
premises.

A premise is a statement or idea that is

considered true and serves as the basis
for a discussion.
 1.3 Logic and
Science
Definition of Logic

Logic is a discipline that studies the forms of thought and the rules that
govern correct reasoning.

Thought (Thinking) is the human ability to

form ideas, concepts and judgments from
information received via the senses or
memory.

Reasoning is the mental process used to

reach a conclusion from the premises.
What are the Elements of Logic
Concepts
Judgments
Propositions
Connectives
Quantifiers
Arguments
Inferences
 Elements of Logic

Concept
A concept is an abstract idea that represents a class of objects, events
or relationships.

It is formed by abstracting characteristics.

They allow us to group and classify into categories and understand in a

more structured way.
 Elements of Logic

Example Concept
 Elements of Logic

Concepts change…
Concepts are not fixed and immutable, they evolve as new information
is acquired.
 Elements of Logic

A concept changes…
Additionally, cultural and social factors can influence in the concepts.
 Elements of Logic

Judgment

It is a proposition that makes an

affirmation or denegation about and
object or subject.

“The sky is blue”

They are also known as propositions.

 Elements of Logic

Judgment
They can be true or false and be put together to form arguments.

“Dogs are mammals” is true “Dogs are reptiles” is false

 Elements of Logic

Classification of Judgments
They can be classified using different criteria:

Quantity Quality Modality

Universal Private Unique Affirmative Negative Cathegorical Hypotetical

All the Some Single Say Deny Say or deny Establish a

members of members member something something something conditional
the class of the class about the about the without relation
subject subject conditions between two
assertations
 Elements of Logic

Assertation examples
Judgment Classification
All cats meow Universal Affirmative

Some birds live on coasts Particular Affirmative

No mammal has an exoskeleton Universal Negative

Some people do not have empathy Particular Negative

If you do not study enough, you will fail the exam. Hypothetical
 Elements of Logic

Connectives and Quantifiers

Connectives or connectors are words or symbols used to join
prepositions:
For example: “and”, “or”, “if…then”, “if and only if”.

Quantifiers are terms used to indicate the number of elements:

For example: “all”, “some”, and “none”
 Elements of Logic

Arguments
These are assertations presented to support or refute a conclusion.

An argument is made up of premises and one conclusion

All mammals have hair Premise 1

Dogs are mammals Premise 2

Therefore, dogs have hair Conclusion

 Elements of Logic

Inference
An inference is the conclusion reached from a set of propositions.

If it’s cloudy, it’s bound to rain

If I get up late, I’ll be late for the meeting
This congestion is sure to be caused by a crash.

Inferences assume results based on experience and can be wrong.

In science, inferences always must be proven with evidence.
1.3.3 Deductive
and Inductive
Reasoning
 Types of Reasoning

Deductive
Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is based on

the deduction of consequences
from general premises.

It allows us to establish
necessary true conclusions from
true propositions.

It goes from General to Specific.

 Types of Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning
All human beings eat Premise 1
Jose is a human being Premise 2

Conclusion
Jose eats
All planets have living beings Premise 1
Mars is a planet Premise 2

Conclusion
Mars has living beings
 Types of Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning
All planets have living beings Premise 1
Mars is a planet Premise 2

Mars has living beings Conclusion

In this example, the first premise is false and the second is true.

If one premise is false the conclusion will be false.

 Types of Reasoning

Inductive
Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is based on the

observation of particular facts to
reach a general conclusion.

It is non-logical process, and it is

supported by probability and
empirical evidence.

From Specific to General.

 Types of Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning
Lucho is a cat and meows Premise 1
Güero is a cat and meows Premise 2
Fluffy is a cat and meows Premise 3

Conclusion
All cats meow
 Types of Reasoning

Examples of inductive reasoning

Example 1.
Premise 1: Guatemala's quetzal is multicolored.
Premise 2: The quetzal of Mexico is multicolored.
Premise 3: The quetzal from Honduras is multicolored.
Conclusion: All quetzals are multicolored.

Example 2.
Premise 1: The blue tie is worn on the neck
Premise 2: The black tie is worn on the neck.
Premise 3: The yellow tie is worn on the neck.
Conclusion: All ties are worn on the neck.
 Types of Reasoning

Deduction
Top-down
From General
ideas to specific
conclusion. All men are mortal Achiles is a man Achiles is a mortal

Induction
Bottom-up
From specific
observations to
conclusions
based on general
phenomena or
knowledge.
I sneeze every time This is a symptom of I am allergic to
it rains pollen allergy pollen
 Types of Reasoning

Deductive and Inductive to get

the truth
Inductive starts from Deductive starts from true
observations to reach a general premises to reach a true
conclusion that is considered conclusion. If one premise is
probable. false, the conclusion will be
false.
 Types of Reasoning

Other types of Reasoning

Abductive. Starts from a

particular observation or fact
and looks for possible
explanations that can justify
the fact.

It is used in problem solving

and hypothesis generation.
 Types of Reasoning

Other types of Reasoning

Abductive. Starts from a

particular observation or fact
and looks for possible
explanations that can justify
the fact.

It is used in problem solving

and hypothesis generation.
 Types of Reasoning

Other types of Reasoning

Analogical. Used to stablish similarities between objects, situations or
concepts that are a priori unrelated.

Hypothetical-deductive. Used in the scientific method to generate

hypothesis and test them using observation and hypothesis.
1.3.4 The
Syllogism
 What is a
Syllogism?
A syllogism is a type of deductive reasoning
with two premises and a conclusion.

It was proposed by the Greek philosopher

Aristotle.

Aristotle also established basic rules and principles of

logic as a form of deductive reasoning.

It is the most perfect form of deductive reasoning.

Syllogism basic form is:

Major premise All A are B

Minor premise All B are C
Conclusion Therefore, all A are C

C C
B B

A A
Syllogism example

Major premise All plants do photosynthesis

Minor premise The mesquite is a plant

Conclusion Therefore, the mesquite does

photosynthesis
Valid Syllogism

A Syllogism can be valid or invalid.

It is valid when the conclusion can be deduced from the premises.

In an invalid syllogism the conclusion does not derive from the

premises.
1.3.5 Logical
Principles and
Fallacies
Logical Principles
Logical Principals are fundamental rules that guide human thinking and
reasoning to have valid or convincing arguments.

1. Principle of non-contradiction
2. Principle of identity
3. Principle of excluded the middle
4. Principle of causality
5. Principle by analogy
 Logical Principles

Principle of non-contradiction
A statement cannot be true or false at the same time.
For example: it cannot be said “it is raining, and it is not
raining” at the same time and place.

Principle of identity
= It is what it is. A thing is a thing.
For example: an apple is an apple and cannot be
anything else.
=
 Logical Principles

Principle of the excluded middle

or
A statement is either true or false, there is no middle
ground.
For example: a glass has water or don't have water.

Principle of causality
Every event has a cause or several to explain it.
For example: If a tree is down is because it has been
knocked down by wind, lightning or another cause
 Logical Principles

Principle by analogy
Two thing that resemble each other in one respect may have more
similarities.
For example: if an apple is sweet and juicy, another apple of the same
variety is likely to be too.
 Logical Principles
Logical Principles

These principles are fundamental in the construction of valid

arguments and fallacy identification.

For example:
If someone says that “all apples are sweet, therefore this apple must be
sweet” he would be using the principle of analogy.

If someone claims that “all dogs bark, therefore this barking animal is a
dog”, he would be using the principle of identity.
Fallacies
A fallacy refers to a reasoning or argument that seems
logical and convincing but is unsupported and may
lead to erroneous conclusions.

Comes from the Latin fallacia, which means deficit.

It may be psychologically persuasive.

 Fallacies

Types of fallacies
Attack on the person. When the person is attacked instead of the argument.
He may be a qualified candidate, but he has long hair, so I won't vote for him.

Appeal to authority. When an authority is used instead of evidence to support

a claim.
The governor says that the best option is to remove the trees from the river, so
that must be done.
 Fallacies

Types of fallacies
Hasty generalization. When a conclusion is drawn from
insufficient reason.
“I heard two people have died after receiving COVID-19 vaccines, so
all vaccines are dangerous.”

Of popularity. When an assertation must be true because many or

most people believe in it.
“Everyone is getting the new smartphone as soon as it comes out
this weekend. You should get it too.”
 Fallacies

Types of fallacies
Appeal to feelings. They seek to cause fear, pity, or insecurity due to a
lack of knowledge. They manipulate emotions in order to have support.

Ad baculum: “If you don't join our demonstration against the expansion
of the park, we will evict you from your apartment”

Ad misericordiam: “Teacher, don’t send me a report for being late

because my house is very far away”

Ad ignorantiam: “Extraterrestrials exist because no one has

demonstrated that they do not exist”
 Fallacies

Type of fallacy Characteristics Example

To present only two extreme options as the If you are not with us, you are against us.
False dichotomy only possible ones, ignoring other alternatives. If you are straight, you are against homosexuals.

Distorting or exaggerating the opponent’s Gun control advocates just want to take all guns
Strawman argument to refute it. away from the rest of the citizens.

To argue that an action will lead to a series of If we allow same-sex marriage, soon people will
Slippery slope negative consequences. want to marry animals.

From the request To assume as true what is being tried to prove. You must do what I say because I am right.
of principle

Incomplete To present only evidence that supports an Statistics show that men are better drivers than
evidence argument and omit evidence that contradicts it. women, then women should not drive.

False causation To assume that a correlation implies a causation. People who has accidents usually is wearing seat
False causality belts, so seat belts cause the accidents.

To use an exceptional example to refute a Climate change can't be real because this year
Iceman general statement. has been colder than last year
 1.3.5
What is
Pseudoscienc
e?
Pseudoscience
Pseudoscience is a set of beliefs or statements that are
presented as scientific but without any empirical basis or solid
evidence.

It is appealing because offer simple and exciting explanations for

complex or mysterious questions.

It is based on beliefs or superstitions, not in scientific evidence.

Pseudoscience characteristics
Lack of empirical evidence: Based on
anecdotes, beliefs, testimonials.

They are not falsifiable: Cannot be proved

or refuted by controlled experiments. Use
a vague or ambiguous language.
Pseudoscience characteristics
Lack of scientific support: Not supported
by scientific community or experts.

Based on logical fallacies: Make persuasive

and misleading claims. Appeal to authority
or emotion.
Pseudoscience examples
Astrology: Based on the position of the stars at
birth and their influence.

Homeopathy: Substances that cause a symptom

may be the cure is they are diluted.

Chiropractic: Manipulation of the spice can cure

disease. Especially disorders of the
musculoskeletal system