OBJECTIVE 1:

Identify the types of angles and specify angle size in degrees and radians.

INTRODUCTION
The term “trigonometry” derives from the Greek word “trigon”, which means “triangle”. In general,
Trigonometry is a branch of Geometry that studies the relationships that exist between the sides and angles of
triangles.
These relationships become very useful, in fact mandatory, when solving many types of problems involving
angular and triangular components, such as forces, lengths, distances, and so on.
32° 45’ 20”

Must be converted to 32.756° (done as follows).

20 seconds = minutes = 0.333 minutes

so: 32° 45’ 20” = 32 degrees, 45.333 minutes

but: 45.333 minutes = degrees = 0.756 degrees

so: 32° 45’ 20” = 32.756 degrees

When analyzing triangles, it is important to note that the sum of the three angles, for any triangle, must equal 180°.
Radians

One radian is defined as “the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc that is equal in length to the
radius of the circle”.

In Fig. 3(a), the second radius is at point B, so that lines OA and OB are each a radius of the circle. The arc AB
is the same length as the radius (that is, AB = OA). Therefore, the angle created between OA and OB is equal
to 1 radian.
In Fig. 3(b), the second radius has moved to point C, such that the arc AC is now two times the length of the
radius (that is, AC = 2 × OA). Now the angle created between OA and OC is equal to 2 radians.
In Fig.3(c), the second radius has rotated completely around the circle until it is back to point A. The length of
the arc, from A to A, is equal to the circumference of the circle. We can say that the angle for one revolution
is 2π radians.
Converting Between Radians and Degrees

Since one circle contains 2π radians (and is 360°), then:

2π radians = 360°
2 × 3.1416 radians = 360°
1 radian =
= 57.3°
Academic Supplement page 40
Types of Angles

Fig. 4 shows the five angle types, which are named and described as follows:
(a) Right angle, which is exactly 90°
(b) Acute angle, which is less than 90°
(c) Obtuse angle, which is greater than 90° but less than 180°
(d) Straight angle, which is exactly 180°
(e) Reflex angle, which is greater than 180°
OBJECTIVE 2:
Identify right, obtuse, and acute triangles and apply the naming convention for sides and angles.

TYPES OF TRIANGLES
By definition, a triangle is a closed figure that is bounded by three straight sides.
The sides meet to form three angles within the triangle.
Based upon these angles, there are three types, or classifications, that are commonly applied to triangles,
namely right triangle, obtuse triangle, and acute triangle.
Fig. 5 shows one example of each type, which is described as follows:

• Right Triangle: A triangle in which one angle is exactly equal to 90° (that is, a right angle). Fig 5(a) shows the right
angle designated by a small square, which is the common notation for 90° angles.

• Obtuse Triangle: A triangle in which one angle is greater than 90° (that is, an obtuse angle)

• Acute Triangle: A triangle in which all angles are less than 90° (that is, acute angles)

Note: In any triangle, the sum of the three angles equals 180°.
Naming Convention for Sides and Angles

The naming convention for sides and angles refers to the labels that are applied to identify specific sides and angles in a
triangle. When problems are presented involving triangles, it is important that the exact configuration of the triangle be
understood, and one way to ensure this is to apply labels to the sides and angles.

Fig. 6 shows three triangles with labels attached to the sides and the angles.
The general rules of thumb for these labels follow are:

Angles:
• The three angles are each labeled with an upper-case letter, with the three letters being consecutive.
• The exact letters used, and their locations are not usually important, and they can be placed either clockwise or
counterclockwise around the triangle.
• There are three ways to identify an angle in a triangle. These ways can best be shown by the following examples. In
Fig. 6(a), the 41° angles can be referred to as ∠ B = 41°, ∠ ABC = 41°, or ∠ CBA = 41°.
• Likewise, in Fig 6(c), the 61° angle may be referred to as ∠ R = 61°, ∠ TRS = 61°, or ∠ SRT = 61°.
Sides:
• Each triangle side is labeled with a lower-case letter, which corresponds to the letter of the angle that the side is
directly opposite to.
• A side may be referred to by the lower-case letter or by the two letters at each end of the line. For example, in Fig.
6(b), ‘line x’ may also be called ‘line YZ’, and ‘line z’ may be called ‘line XY’.
Triangles: The triangles themselves are referred to by the letters at their angles.
• In Fig.6 they would be referred to as “triangle ABC”, “triangle XYZ”, and “triangle “RST”.
OBJECTIVE 3:
Use Pythagoras’ Theorem to calculate the side lengths of a right-angle triangle and solve simple problems involving right triangles.

PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM
Pythagoras’ Theorem states, “In any right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares
of the other two sides”. Using the line convention in Fig. 7, this can be stated in a formula as:

c2 = a2 + b2
Academic Supplement page 6

Fig. 7 shows two right triangles, with the

sides labeled ‘a’, ‘b’, and ‘c’. The common
form of Pythagoras’ Theorem uses these
labels. Note that the side ‘c’, which is
opposite the right angle, is called the
hypotenuse.
OBJECTIVE 4:
Using sine, cosine, and tangent, find the dimensions of right triangles and solve physical problems involving right triangles.

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF RIGHT TRIANGLES

The trigonometric functions (sine, cosine, and tangent) can be used to define relationships between the sides and
the angles of a right triangle.

In Fig. 9 (a), where point ‘P’ is revolving around the

center of a circle, with radius = 1, we already know
that:
• the horizontal distance on the x-axis is equal to
cosine θ
• the vertical distance of the point above the x-
axis is equal to sine θ

Since the radius is equal to 1, we can state relationships between the angle, θ, and the sides as follows:
sin θ = and cos θ = We also know that: tan θ =
Now, if we use these relationships and apply them to the same triangle, in Fig. 9(b), but with the sides of the right
triangle referred to as the hypotenuse, the opposite (the side directly across from angle θ), and the adjacent (the
side that forms angle θ with the hypotenuse), we can re-state the relationships as follows:

Sin θ = and Cos θ =

Tan θ = = =

Note: Although the example has a hypotenuse equal to 1, realize that the sine, cosine, and tan ratios apply to any
right triangle, regardless of hypotenuse length.
OBJECTIVE 5:
Explain the sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle and determine the values of these functions for all angles between 0 and 360 degrees.

THE BASIS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

For our purposes, trigonometry involves relationships between the angles and sides in a triangle. The two main
relationships, also called ‘trigonometric functions’, are sine and cosine, with the other most common one being
tangent.

Fig. 8 represents a circle with a radius of 1 unit. Imagine the circle resting on a grid with its center at point ‘0’
(zero). A horizontal axis (‘x’) and a vertical axis (‘y’) cut through the center of the circle and meet the circle at the
coordinates shown in the figure. That is, the circle meets the x-axis at coordinates x = 1, y = 0 (1, 0) and at x = −1,
y = 0 (−1, 0) and it meets the y- axis at coordinates x = 0, y = 1 (0, 1) and at x = 0, y = −1 (0, −1).
Now, consider a point ‘P’, which starts at coordinate (1, 0) and moves counterclockwise around the circle. For every
position that ‘P’ reaches on the circle a perpendicular line can be dropped down to the x-axis and another perpendicular
line drawn across to the y-axis. Figs. 8 (a) and (b) show two such positions with these perpendiculars indicated.

• The point where the perpendicular cuts the x-axis is equal to the value of ‘cosine t’ (cos t)

• The point where the perpendicular cuts the y-axis is equal to the value of ‘sine t’ (sin t)
We can say that the (x, y) coordinates of point ‘P’ are (cos t, sin t). Therefore, the x-axis represents the values of cosine,
and the y-axis represents the values of sine.

• Notice that the values of both sine and cosine range from -1 to 1.

• Now, the size of the angle that an arc subtends at the center of a given circle is directly proportional to the length of
the arc. Therefore, the sine and cosine functions can be used to directly represent the size of the angle, rather than
the length of the arc.
Fig. 9 shows the same locations for point ‘P’, with the corresponding angles created (subtended) by the arcs. The angles
are represented by the Greek letter ‘theta’ (denoted by θ).

In this case, the sine of the angle (that is, sin θ) is the value located on the y-axis, and the cosine of the angle (that is, cos
θ) is the value located on the x-axis.

If the point, ‘P’, is rotated completely around the circle, there will be values for sine and cosine at every location. It
follows that, for every angle between 0ᵒ and 360ᵒ, there are values for sine and cosine and these values lie between –1
and 1.
Tangent of an Angle

A third trigonometric function for an angle is called tangent, or simply ‘tan’. The tangent is the ratio between the sine
of an angle and the cosine of the angle. This can be stated as:

Note: The value for tan θ cannot be defined at 90ᵒ or at 270ᵒ. This is because at both locations the value of cos θ is
zero, and dividing a number by zero is not possible.
Quadrant Values for Sine, Cosine, and Tan

The sine, cosine and tangent of an angle are expressed as positive (+) values or as negative (–) values, depending on
which quadrant of the circle the angle fits into.

For this determination, the circle is divided into four quadrants, as shown in Fig. 13, each covering 90ᵒ of the circle.

1st quadrant: 0ᵒ to 90ᵒ 2nd quadrant: 90ᵒ to 180ᵒ

3rd quadrant: 180ᵒ to 270ᵒ 4th quadrant: 270ᵒ to 360ᵒ
Each of these quadrants can be summarized as follows:

1st Quadrant: Values of Sine increase from 0 to +1, so Sin is positive

Values of Cosine decrease from +1 to 0, so Cos is positive
Tangent is (+ sin) ÷ (+ cos), so Tan is positive

2nd Quadrant: Values of Sine decrease from +1 to 0, so Sin is positive

Values of Cosine decrease from 0 to – 1, so Cos is negative
Tangent is (+ sin) ÷ (– cos), so Tan is negative
Each of these quadrants can be summarized as follows:

3rd Quadrant: Values of Sine decrease from 0 to – 1, so Sin is negative

Values of Cosine increase from – 1 to 0, so Cos is negative
Tangent is (– sin) ÷ (– cos), so Tan is positive

4th Quadrant: Values of Sine increase from – 1 to 0, so Sin is negative

Values of Cosine increase from 0 to +1, so Cos is positive
Tangent is (– sin) ÷ (+ cos), so Tan is negative
A simple method of remembering the signs is shown in Fig. 10.

Starting with the 4th quadrant and moving counter clockwise, the acronym C-A-S-T indicates
the function in each quadrant that is positive. All other functions in each quadrant are
negative.

Please note that scientific calculators will display the negative sign, where applicable, for
sines, cosines, and tangents.
Fig. 14 shows four angles, each in a different quadrant. The sine, cosine, and tangent of each angle are given, to
demonstrate the correct application of negative and positive values.
Finding Trigonometric Values on a Calculator
The values of sine, cosine, and tangent for any given angle between 0ᵒ and 360ᵒ can be found directly on a scientific
calculator. Depending on the calculator, one of two possible keystroke progressions is used. Both cases involve the
number keys and the function keys (SIN, COS, TAN).
For example, to find the sine, cosine, and tangent of 125ᵒ, one of the following two key progressions will be used:
Method 1: SIN 1 2 5 =
Method 2: 1 2 5 SIN
In both methods, the display should read 0.819152044
Round this off to four places, giving sin 125ᵒ = + 0.8192
Method 1: COS 1 2 5 =
Method 2: 1 2 5 COS
In both methods, the display should read – 0.573576436
Round this off to four places, giving cos 125ᵒ = – 0.5736
Method 1: TAN 1 2 5 =
Method 2: 1 2 5 TAN
In both methods, the display should read -1.428148007
Round this off to four places, giving tan 125ᵒ = – 1.4281
Finding Angles less than 90º (when Trig. Values are known)
In many problems, one or more of the sine, cosine, or tangent values are known for an angle, but the angle itself is not
known.
Using a scientific calculator, it is possible to find the unknown angle from the known trig value(s).
This involves use of the second function key on the calculator, usually marked 2ndF or simply 2nd.
This key activates the second functions (SIN-1, COS-1, TAN-1), which are indicated on the SIN, COS, and TAN keys,
respectively.
Again there are two keystroke progressions, depending on the particular calculator used:
For example, if asked to find angle θ, which is less than 90ᵒ, given that Sin θ = 0.9064, one of the following keystroke
progressions will be used:
Method 1: 2ndF SIN-1 0.9063 =
Method 2: 0.9063 2ndF SIN-1
The display should read 65.01250455
Round this off to two places, giving θ = 65.01ᵒ
Similarly, if asked to find angle β, which is less than 90ᵒ, given that the Tan β = 1.2799, use one of the following
keystroke progressions:
Method 1: 2ndF TAN-1 1.2799 =
Method 2: 1.2799 2ndF TAN-1
The display should read 51.99909584
Round this off to β = 52ᵒ
Finding Angles Greater than 90º

Since the trigonometric function of any angle has 2 quadrants where its value is positive, and 2 quadrants where it is
negative, then if we know the value of sin, cos or tan (either positive or negative), and are working backwards to find
the angle, there will always be two possible answers!
For example, if:
sin θ = 0.843 then θ can be 57.5° and 122.5°, and if
cos θ = −0.312 then θ can be 108.2° and 251.8°
This concept is illustrated in Fig. 15, which shows four different angles, 60°, 120°, 240°, and 300°, all having the same
positive or negative numerical values.

In these examples, notice that there are:

two angles with sine = + 0.8660
two angles with cosine = – 0.5000
two angles with tangent = +1.7320, and so on.
In general, then, each value of sine, cosine, and tangent, represents two different angles between 0° and 360°.
• Let the angle in the 1st quadrant, corresponding to the known sine, cosine, or tangent, be represented by ‘θ’ (note:
this is called the equivalent angle).

• Let the unknown angle be represented by ‘β’.

• If the unknown angle, β, is in the 2nd quadrant, then: β = 180° – θ

• If the unknown angle, β, is in the 3rd quadrant, then: β = 180° + θ
• If the unknown angle, β, is in the 4th quadrant, then: β = 360° – θ
Self-Test Problems 9 -11
Self-Test Problems 1 - 8

Using Pythagorean’s Theorem and Basic Ratios to solve problems

involving 90° triangles.

Mistake on solutions #6b) should be 68.302 m

OBJECTIVE 6
Define the Sine Rule and the Cosine Rule and use these rules to determine the unknown dimensions of oblique triangles.

SOLVING OBLIQUE TRIANGLES

Triangles that do not contain a right angle are called oblique triangles. These can be either obtuse triangles (that is, one
angle is greater than 90°) or acute triangles (that is, all angles are less than 90°). Oblique triangles cannot be solved
directly with the trigonometric functions. However, when sufficient sides and angles are given, there are proven
relationships, still involving trigonometry, which can be applied. These are the sine rule and the cosine rule.

Fig. 16 shows typical triangles with no right angle. In Fig. 16 (a) normal labeling convention is followed, with each angle
represented by a capital letter and the side directly opposite labeled with the corresponding lower-case letter. In Fig. 16
(b), the angles are designated by letters of the Greek alphabet.
THE SINE RULE

The sine rule uses the relationship between the sines of the angles and the lengths of the sides opposite the angles.

The basis of this rule is that the ratio of a side to its opposite angle is the same for all three sides. As an equation this can
be stated as follows, using Fig.16 (a) as an example:

= =

To illustrate that this basic relationship applies regardless of the naming convention used, this formula can be stated
for the triangle in Fig. 16 (b) as:

= =
THE COSINE RULE

Two cases in which the sine rule alone cannot be used to solve a triangle are:
a. when the only information available is the lengths of all three sides
b. when the only information available is two sides plus the angle between them
In these cases, the cosine rule must be applied first, to obtain sufficient information to apply the sine rule.
In case ‘(a)’, the cosine rule will determine any of the three unknown angles.
In case ‘(b)’, it will determine the third side.
The cosine rule can be stated, with reference to each of the three sides, as follows: (refer to Fig.17)
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2 b c cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2 a c cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2 a b cos C
Self-Test Problems 12-14
End of Chapter 2 Questions
Mistake on solutions for End of Chapter Questions:
4.b) Angle R = 35°
#12) should be 6.838 m
 Chapter 2 practice question
Find the distance x in the figure below.

Applied Mechanics for Engineering Technology, 3rd edition, Keith M. Walker

(Ans. 4.104 ft.)

Solution:

4.104 ft (Ans.)
 Chapter 2 practice question #2
A surveying technique for measuring the height of a building from sloping ground has data as shown below. Determine
the “h” of the building.

Applied Mechanics for Engineering Technology, 3rd edition, Keith M. Walker

(Ans. 13.807m)
Solution:
Try this
The toggle mechanism shown below moves from an initial angle θ = 30˚ to a final θ = 20˚. Calculate the horizontal
distance moved by point C.

“Applied Mechanics for Engineering Technology, Keith M. Walker, 3td edition”

(Ans. 0.596”)
Solution:

Sketch out the triangle.

Using sine law:

Upon observation, the scale sketch above indicates that the angle Ø should be an obtuse angle, not an acute angle, and
also if the given angle 30˚ and angle α are acute, angle Ø would have to be obtuse for all the interior angles to add up to
180˚.
So what happened???
If you remember back to objective 4 of this chapter, there is a possibility there exists a triangle with the same given values,
that is an Acute triangle, rather than an Obtuse triangle as represented in the question.
So when we entered the values into the calculator, it gave us the 1 st quadrant angle, which goes to an acute triangle, which
we will call angle β. Another angle must exist to an obtuse triangle, and we know sine is positive in quadrants 1 and 2. To
find angle Ø, we have to go:

Ø = 180˚ - β
= 180˚ - 53.130˚
= 126.870˚
To find the value of the angle α, we use the law of interior angles of a triangle adding up to 180˚:

= 23.130˚

Plugging that value into our sine law, we will now be able to find out the missing side of the triangle:

X1 = 3.928”

On the second triangle, we find Ø by:

8 5
=
sin ∅ sin 20
but we know the calculator will show us the angle of the obtuse triangle, so modifying the equation we should get:

To find the value of the angle α, we use the law of interior angles of a triangle adding up to 180˚:

= 13.177˚

Plugging that value into our sine law, we will now be able to find out the missing side of the triangle:

X2 = 3.333”
So to find the difference that the block moved, I simply subtract X 2 from X1.

Distance moved = X1 - X2
= 3.928” - 3.333”
= 0.596”