Chapter 3

Boolean Algebra and

Digital Logic
 3.1 Introduction

• In the latter part of the nineteenth century, George

Boole incensed philosophers and mathematicians
alike when he suggested that logical thought could
be represented through mathematical equations .
– How dare anyone suggest that human thought could be
encapsulated and manipulated like an algebraic formula?
• Computers, as we know them today, are
implementations of Boole’s Laws of Thought.
– John Atanasoff and Claude Shannon were among the first
to see this connection.
 3.1 Introduction

• In the middle of the twentieth century, computers

were commonly known as “thinking machines” and
“electronic brains.”
– Many people were fearful of them.
• Nowadays, we rarely ponder the relationship
between electronic digital computers and human
logic. Computers are accepted as part of our lives.
– Many people, however, are still fearful of them.
• In this chapter, you will learn the simplicity that
constitutes the essence of the machine.
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• Boolean algebra is a mathematical system for

the manipulation of variables that can have
one of two values.
– In formal logic, these values are “true” and “false.”
– In digital systems, these values are “on” and “off,”
1 and 0, or “high” and “low.”
• Boolean expressions are created by
performing operations on Boolean variables.
– Common Boolean operators include AND, OR, and
NOT.
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• A Boolean operator can be

completely described using a
truth table.
• The truth table for the Boolean
operators AND and OR are
shown at the right.
• The AND operator is also known
as a Boolean product. The OR
operator is the Boolean sum.
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• The truth table for the

Boolean NOT operator is
shown at the right.
• The NOT operation is most
often designated by an
overbar. It is sometimes
indicated by a prime mark
( ‘ ) or an “elbow” ().
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• A Boolean function has:

• At least one Boolean variable,
• At least one Boolean operator, and
• At least one input from the set {0,1}.
• It produces an output that is also a member of
the set {0,1}.

Now you know why the binary numbering system is so handy in digital

systems.
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• The truth table for the

Boolean function:

is shown at the right.

• To make evaluation of the
Boolean function easier,
the truth table contains
extra (shaded) columns to
hold evaluations of
subparts of the function.
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• As with common
arithmetic, Boolean
operations have rules of
precedence.
• The NOT operator has
highest priority, followed
by AND and then OR.
• This is how we chose the
(shaded) function
subparts in our table.
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• Digital computers contain circuits that implement

Boolean functions.
• The simpler that we can make a Boolean function,
the smaller the circuit that will result.
– Simpler circuits are cheaper to build, consume less
power, and run faster than complex circuits.
• With this in mind, we always want to reduce our
Boolean functions to their simplest form.
• There are a number of Boolean identities that help
us to do this.
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• Most Boolean identities have an AND (product)

form as well as an OR (sum) form. We give our
identities using both forms. Our first group is rather
intuitive:
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• Our second group of Boolean identities should be

familiar to you from your study of algebra:
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• Our last group of Boolean identities are perhaps the

most useful.
• If you have studied set theory or formal logic, these
laws are also familiar to you.
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• We can use Boolean identities to simplify the

function:
as follows:
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• Sometimes it is more economical to build a

circuit using the complement of a function (and
complementing its result) than it is to implement
the function directly.
• DeMorgan’s law provides an easy way of finding
the complement of a Boolean function.
• Recall DeMorgan’s law states:
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• DeMorgan’s law can be extended to any number of

variables.
• Replace each variable by its complement and
change all ANDs to ORs and all ORs to ANDs.
• Thus, we find the the complement of:

is:
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• Through our exercises in simplifying Boolean

expressions, we see that there are numerous
ways of stating the same Boolean expression .
– These “synonymous” forms are logically equivalent.
– Logically equivalent expressions have identical truth
tables.
• In order to eliminate as much confusion as
possible, designers express Boolean functions in
standardized or canonical form.
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• There are two canonical forms for Boolean

expressions: sum-of-products and product-of-sums.
– Recall the Boolean product is the AND operation and the
Boolean sum is the OR operation.
• In the sum-of-products form, ANDed variables are
ORed together.
– For example:
• In the product-of-sums form, ORed variables are
ANDed together:
– For example:
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• It is easy to convert a function

to sum-of-products form using
its truth table.
• We are interested in the values
of the variables that make the
function true (=1).
• Using the truth table, we list
the values of the variables that
result in a true function value.
• Each group of variables is then
ORed together.
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• The sum-of-products form

for our function is:

We note that this function is not in simplest terms. Our

aim is only to rewrite our function in canonical sum-of-

products form.
 3.3 Logic Gates

• We have looked at Boolean functions in abstract

terms.
• In this section, we see that Boolean functions are
implemented in digital computer circuits called gates.
• A gate is an electronic device that produces a result
based on two or more input values.
– In reality, gates consist of one to six transistors, but digital
designers think of them as a single unit.
– Integrated circuits contain collections of gates suited to a
particular purpose.
 3.3 Logic Gates

• The three simplest gates are the AND, OR, and NOT
gates.

• They correspond directly to their respective Boolean

operations, as you can see by their truth tables.
 3.3 Logic Gates

• Another very useful gate is the exclusive OR

(XOR) gate.
• The output of the XOR operation is true only when
the values of the inputs differ.

Note the special symbol  for the XOR

operation.
 3.3 Logic Gates

• NAND and NOR

are two very
important gates.
Their symbols and
truth tables are
shown at the right.
 3.3 Logic Gates

• NAND and NOR

are known as
universal gates
because they are
inexpensive to
manufacture and
any Boolean
function can be
constructed using
only NAND or only
NOR gates.
 3.3 Logic Gates

• Gates can have multiple inputs and more than

one output.
– A second output can be provided for the complement
of the operation.
– We’ll see more of this later.
 3.4 Digital Components

• The main thing to remember is that

combinations of gates implement Boolean
functions.
• The circuit below implements the Boolean
function:

We simplify our Boolean expressions so that we can create simpler

circuits.
 Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits
• Boolean algebra provides a concise way to
express the operation of a logic circuit
formed by a combination of logic gates
– so that the output can be determined for various
combinations of input values.
 Boolean Expression for a Logic Circuit

• To derive the Boolean expression for a

given logic circuit, begin at the left-most
inputs and work toward the final output,
writing the expression for each gate.
C CD

B+CD

A(B+CD)
A
 Constructing a Truth Table for a
Logic Circuit
• Once the Boolean expression for a given
logic circuit has been determined, a truth
table that shows the output for all possible
values of the input variables can be
developed.
– Let’s take the previous circuit as the example:
A(B+CD)
– There are four variables, hence 16 (24)
combinations of values are possible.
 Constructing a Truth Table for a
Logic Circuit
• Evaluating the expression
– To evaluate the expression A(B+CD), first find
the values of the variables that make the
expression equal to 1 (using the rules for
Boolean add & mult).
– In this case, the expression equals 1 only if A=1
and B+CD=1 because
A(B+CD) = 1·1 = 1
 Constructing a Truth Table for a
Logic Circuit
• Evaluating the expression (cont’)
– Now, determine when B+CD term equals 1.
– The term B+CD=1 if either B=1 or CD=1 or if
both B and CD equal 1 because
B+CD = 1+0 = 1
B+CD = 0+1 = 1
B+CD = 1+1 = 1
• The term CD=1 only if C=1 and D=1
 Constructing a Truth Table for a
Logic Circuit
• Evaluating the expression (cont’)
– Summary:
– A(B+CD)=1
• When A=1 and B=1 regardless of the values of C
and D
• When A=1 and C=1 and D=1 regardless of the
value of B
– The expression A(B+CD)=0 for all other value
combinations of the variables.
Constructing a Truth Table for a Logic
Circuit
• Putting the results in A B
INPUTS
C D
OUTPUT
A(B+CD)

truth table format 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0
A(B+CD)=1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0
When A=1 and B=1
0 1 0 1 0
regardless of the 0 1 1 0 0
values of C and D 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
When A=1 and C=1 and D=1
1 0 1 0 0
regardless of the value of B 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
 Chapter 3 Conclusion

• Computers are implementations of Boolean logic.

• Boolean functions are completely described by
truth tables.
• Logic gates are small circuits that implement
Boolean operators.
• The basic gates are AND, OR, and NOT.
– The XOR gate is very useful in parity checkers and
adders.
• The “universal gates” are NOR, and NAND.