DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION

FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

EMA 805D: Research Methods in

Mathematics
Education
Dr Christopher
Yarkwah Prof. Douglas
D. Agyei Dr Isaac
Benning
UCC

Sample and Sampling

Techniques
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

Basic
Terminologies
Sample
• a set of elements selected from a population
Population
• the full set of elements or people from which the sample was selected
Sampling
• process of drawing elements from population to form a sample
Representative sample
• a sample that resembles the population
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

Basic Terminologies
Equal probability method of selection method (EPSEM)
• each individual element has an equal probability of selection into the sample
Statistic
– a numerical characteristic of sample data
– e.g., sample mean, sample standard deviation
Parameter
– a numerical characteristic of population data
– e.g., population mean, population standard deviation
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

Basic Terminologies
Sampling error
• the difference between the value of the sample statistic and the value of the
population parameter
Sampling frame
• a list of all the elements in a population
Response rate
• the percentage of individuals selected to be in the sample who actually
participate in
the study
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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SAMPLING BREAKDOWN
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

SAMPLING……. STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES

The Process UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

• The sampling process comprises several stages:

• Defining the population of concern
• Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible to
measure
• Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from the
frame
• Determining the sample size
• Implementing the sampling plan
• Sampling and data collecting
• Reviewing the sampling process
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

Why Sample? • Selecting a sample is less time-consuming

than selecting every item in the population
(census).
• Selecting a sample is less costly than
selecting every item in the population.
• An analysis of a sample is less cumbersome
and more practical than an analysis of the
entire population.
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

Types of Samples

Probability (random sample)

• Every element in the population has a known, non-zero
probability of selection
Non probability (non- random sample)
The units of the sample are selected on the basis of the
judgment of the investigator, convenience or by some non-
random process.
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Types of Samples

Samples
Non- Probability Samples
Probability
Samples

Simple Stratified
Judgment Chunk Random

Systematic Cluster
Quota Convenience
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FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

Simple Random Sampling

• Every individual or item from the frame has an equal chance of
being selected
• choosing a sample in a manner in which everyone has an
equal chance of being selected (EPSEM)

• Selection may be with replacement (selected individual is

returned to frame for possible reselection) or without
replacement (selected individual isn’t returned to the
frame).
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
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COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Simple Random
Sampling
• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily available
• All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each element of the frame
thus has an equal probability of selection.
• It provides for greatest number of possible samples. This is done by assigning a
number to each unit in the sampling frame
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FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Simple Random
Sampling
Samples obtained from table of random numbers or computer random number
generators
• sampling “without replacement” is preferred
• random numbers generators simplify the process
www.randomizer.org
www.random.org
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FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Simple Random Sampling

Advantages
• Estimates are easy to calculate.
• Simple random sampling is always an EPS design, but not all EPS designs are
simple random sampling.

Disadvantages
• If sampling frame is large, this method impracticable.
• Minority subgroups of interest in population may not be present in sample in
sufficient numbers for study.
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FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Systematic Sampling
• Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target population
according to some ordering scheme and then selecting
elements at regular intervals through that ordered list.
• Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds
with the selection of every kth element from then onwards. In
this case, k=(population size/sample size).
• It is important that the starting point is not automatically the
first in the list, but is instead randomly chosen from within the
first to the kth element in the list.
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Systematic Sampling
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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• Decide on sample size: n

• Divide frame of N individuals into groups of k individuals: k=N/n
• Randomly select one individual from the 1st group
• Select every kth individual thereafter

For example, suppose you were sampling n = 9 individuals from a

population of N = 72. So, the population would be divided into k =
72/9
= 8 groups. Randomly select a member from group 1, say individual
3. Then, select every 8th individual thereafter (i.e. 3, 11, 19, 27, 35, 43,
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION

Systematic Sampling
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Advantages:
Sample easy to select
Suitable sampling frame can be identified easily
Sample evenly spread over entire reference population
Disadvantages:
Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in population
coincides with that of selection.
Difficult to assess precision of estimate from one survey.
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FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
Stratified Sampling COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

• Where population embraces a number of distinct categories,

the frame can be organized into separate "strata." - groups
should be mutually exclusive
• Each stratum is then sampled as an independent sub-
population, out of which individual elements can be randomly
selected.
• Every unit in a stratum has same chance of being selected.
• Using same sampling fraction for all strata ensures
proportionate representation in the sample.
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

Stratified Sampling
• Divide population into two or more subgroups (called strata)
according to some common characteristic.
• A simple random sample is selected from each subgroup, with
sample sizes proportional to strata sizes.
• Samples from subgroups are combined into one.
• This is a common technique when sampling population of
voters, stratifying across racial or socio-economic lines.
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Stratified Sampling
Stratified random sampling example (proportional)
• strata – gender (males/females)
• population – N = 122
• 14 female presidents (11%)
• 108 male presidents (89%)
• sample – n = 100
• 11 female presidents drawn randomly
• 89 male presidents drawn randomly
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Stratified Sampling
Advantage
• Stratum is treated as an independent population, different sampling
approaches can be applied to different strata
Disadvantage
• Sampling frame of entire population has to be prepared separately for
each stratum
• when examining multiple criteria, stratifying variables may be related
to some, but not to others, further complicating the design, and
potentially reducing the utility of the strata.
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
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COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Stratified Sampling
Disadvantage
•
In some cases (such as designs with a large number
of strata, or those with a specified minimum sample
size per group), stratified sampling can potentially
require a larger sample than would other methods
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Poststratification FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Stratification is sometimes introduced after the sampling phase in a process called

"poststratification“.
• Typically implemented due to a lack of prior knowledge of an appropriate
stratifying variable or
• when the experimenter lacks the necessary information to create a stratifying
variable during the sampling phase.
• Although the method is susceptible to the pitfalls of post hoc approaches, it
can provide several benefits in the right situation.
• Implementation usually follows a simple random sample.
• In addition to allowing for stratification on an ancillary variable,
poststratification can be used to implement weighting, which can improve the
precision of a sample's estimates.
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Cluster Sampling
• Population is divided into several “clusters,” of homogeneous units,
usually based on geographical contiguity (each representative of the
population)
• Sampling units are groups rather than individuals
• A simple random sample of clusters is selected.
• All items in the selected clusters can be used, or items can be chosen
from a cluster using another probability sampling technique.
• A common application of cluster sampling involves election exit polls,
where certain election districts are selected and sampled.
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FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Cluster Sampling-Types
Two types of cluster sampling methods.
• One-stage cluster sampling.- All of the elements within
selected clusters are included in the sample.
• randomly select clusters and using all individuals
within
• e.g., randomly select 15 psychology
classrooms using all individuals in each classroom
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FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Cluster Sampling-Types
Two types of cluster sampling methods.

• Two-stage cluster sampling.- A subset of elements within selected

clusters are randomly selected for inclusion in the sample..
• randomly select clusters AND
• randomly choosing individuals within each chosen cluster
• e.g., randomly select 30 psychology classrooms, then randomly
select 10 students from each of those classrooms
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FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Cluster Sampling

Advantages :
• Cuts down on the cost of preparing a sampling frame.
This can reduce travel and other administrative costs.
Disadvantages:
sampling error is higher for a simple random sample of same
size.
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Difference Between Strata and Clusters

• In Cluster Sampling, the sampling is done on a population of
clusters therefore, cluster/group is considered a sampling
unit. In Stratified Sampling, elements within each stratum are
sampled.
• In Cluster Sampling, only selected clusters are sampled. In
Stratified Sampling, from each stratum, a random sample is
selected.
• With stratified sampling, the best survey results occur when
elements within strata are internally homogeneous. However,
with cluster sampling, the best results occur when elements
within clusters are internally heterogeneous
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Multi-stage and multi-phase sampling

• Multi-Stage Is the process of selecting a sample in two or more
successive stages. The units selected at the first stage are
called primary sampling units (PSU’s), units selected at the
second stage are called second stage units (SSU’s),etc.

• With multi-stage sampling, the random selection of data sources

extends all the way through to the identification of individual
data sources with the cluster – multi-stage sampling ‘drills right
down to individual sources within the cluster.
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FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
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Multi-stage
• The units at each stage are different in structure and are
hierarchical (for example, people live in dwellings,
dwellings make up a city block, city blocks make up a city,
etc.).
• In two-stage sampling, the SSU’s are often the individual
units of the population
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FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Multi-stage
• Multi-stage samples can have any number of stages, but since
the complexity of the design (and estimation) increases with
the number of stages, designs are often restricted to two or
three stages.
• Each stage of a multi-stage sample can be conducted using any
sampling technique.
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FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Advantages
• It could result in a more statistically efficient sampling strategy
• It can greatly reduce the travel time and cost.
• It is not necessary to have a list frame for the entire
population. All that is needed is a good frame at each stage of
sample selection.
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Disadvantages
• The final sample size is not always known in advance
• Its survey organisation is more complex than for one-stage
cluster sampling.
• Its formulas for calculating estimates and sampling
variance can be complex.
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FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

Multi-phase sampling
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.
• Multi-phase sampling – the population is sampled at two levels, a
general level and at a more detailed level for a smaller (but still
randomly drawn and representative) set of the data population.

• Random selection extends to the identification of data

sources.
• The procedure allows researchers to gather detailed
insights with limited costs.
• Errors in estimates of population characteristics are
higher than for samples of the whole population.
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FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
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Advantages
• It can greatly increase the precision of estimates (compared
with SRS).
• It can be used to obtain auxiliary information that is not on the
sampling frame (in particular, stratification information for
second phase sampling).
• It can be used when the cost of collection for some of the
survey variables is particularly expensive or burdensome for
the respondent
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FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Disadvantages
• It takes longer to get results than from a one-phase survey, if results
from the first phase are required to conduct the second phase.
• It can be more expensive than a one-phase survey since it
requires interviewing a sampled unit more than once.
• If the population is mobile or if the characteristics of interest change
frequently, time delays between phases may pose problems.
• Its survey organisation can be complex
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
Summary of probability sampling approaches
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

Sampling approach When to use it What to watch out for

Simple random For smaller studies where the population  Costs increase with sample size.
can be defined and itemised.  If using a table of random numbers, ensure
that selection of first is random.
Systematic For larger populations where we can  Need to know size of population to determine
create a sequence in the data e.g. people sample fraction.
passing a point, houses in a street.  Selection of first survey point should be
random.
Stratification To achieve a more accurate sample (or to  Link stratification to factors that might influence
save cost if you are happy with less or be associated with outcomes (e.g. age and
accurate results). attitude, social status and behaviour).
 Setting up a stratified sample frame can be
costly.
Cluster For large populations where we can ‘drill  Higher sampling error than random sampling.
down’ to identify groups to represent the  Clusters should not be uniform in character.
whole population.
Multi-stage As for cluster sampling.  As for cluster sampling.
 Individual members should be known and
identifiable in final clusters.
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION

Non-Probability Sampling
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Any sampling method where some elements of population have no

chance of selection or where the probability of selection can't be
accurately determined
In a nonprobability sample, items included are chosen without regard to
their probability of occurrence
• Sometimes referred to as 'out of coverage’ or 'undercovered’
• It involves the selection of elements based on assumptions
regarding the population of interest, which forms the criteria for
selection.
• Because the selection of elements is nonrandom, nonprobability
sampling does not allow the estimation of sampling errors..
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION

Convenience Sampling
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A type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from
that part of the population which is close to hand. That is, readily available and
convenient.
In convenience sampling, items are selected based only on the fact that they are
easy, inexpensive, or convenient to sample
• Sometimes known as accidental or haphazard sampling
• Scientifically does not allow for generalizations about the total population from
this sample because it would not be representative enough.
• This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
E.g. Conducting a survey at a shopping center early in the morning on a given
day,
the people would be interviewed would be limited to those present at that given
time, which would not represent the views of other members of society in such an
area, if the survey was to be conducted at different times of day and several times
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION

Judgmental Sampling
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• Sampling is done based on previous ideas of population composition

and behaviour.
• An expert with knowledge of the population decides which units in the
population should be sampled.
• In other words, the expert purposely selects what is considered to be a
representative sample.
• Judgement sampling is subject to the researcher's biases and is
perhaps even more biased than haphazard sampling
• Used primarily when there is a limited number of people that have
expertise in the area being researched
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FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
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Purposive sampling
The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think
would be appropriate for the study. This is used primarily when
there is a limited number of people that have expertise in the
area being researched
• involves identifying a group of individuals with specific
characteristics
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FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Quota Sampling
• The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups, just as in
stratified sampling.
• Then judgment used to select subjects or units from each segment based on
a specified proportion. (i.e. In quota sampling selection of the sample is non-
random).
• It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-probability
sampling.
• It differs from Stratified Random Sampling in how the units are selected
• For example, if there are 100 men and 100 women in the population and a
sample of 20 are to be drawn, 10 men and 10 women may be interviewed
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
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Snowball sampling

• technique in which research participants identify other

potential participants
• particularly useful in identifying participants from a difficult to
find population
e.g., parents of children with autism
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
Summary of non-probability sampling approaches
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
Sampling approach When to use it What to watch out for

Quota Small to medium sized samples where it is  Many analytical statistical procedures are based on the assumption that the
important to isolate the views/actions of data is collected on a random basis. Quota sampling does not meet this
well- defined groups. Usually quicker to condition. Note, however, that with some techniques this assumption can
collect sample data than with probability be relaxed without affecting the analysis greatly.
samples.
Snowball Where the population is hard to reach or  Researcher must be credible to gain entry to a network.
where the population is defined by personal  Need to have sufficient awareness of the issue being investigated to
knowledge or reputation. judge whether contacts and leads are appropriate.

Specialist group When the research calls for a specialist  Develop criteria for selection of group members.
perspective or input. Frequently used  Put in place a policy of what to do if members drop out in the
for futures analysis. survey process.

Convenience Use for preliminary studies or when the  Do not attempt any statistical predictions unless the group is
population is small or when time is of demonstrably representative of a larger population.
the essence.
Case study To represent a particular situation (good,  More a case of selection according to the features under
bad, typical) or to understand the process investigation rather than sampling.
that has led to an outcome.  Justify selection.

Self-selecting Targeted studies. Especially appropriate  Demonstrate how the representative group is of larger population.
for web-based surveys.  Ensure against multiple completion of survey and take care to check that
a group does not ‘fix the vote’.
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
Choosing which sampling method to use
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Choice of sampling method will depend on

• the purpose of our research
• the nature of our analysis
• the time available especially when speed is of the essence
• the resources available especially when limited.

What can go wrong with a sample?

• Not enough people taking part
• People drop out
 The sample is large enough but not representative of the population
(biased).
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ICT EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
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Research
Proposal
• What are the features of a research proposal?
1. Research topic
2. Background
3. Purpose
4. Statement of Problem
5. Research questions/hypothesis
6. Literature
7. Methodology
8. Reference list
9. Timelines EMA 805 RESEARCH METHODS IN MATHS EDUC. 5
0
10. Budget