Fluid Mechanics: Fundamental and

Applications,Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala

McGraw-Hill, 2014

CHAPTER 3
PRESSURE AND
FLUID STATICS
PRESSURE AND FLUID STATICS
3–1 Pressure
Pressure at a Point
Variation of Pressure with Depth
3–2 The Manometer
Other Pressure Measurement Devices
3–3 The Barometer and Atmospheric Pressure
3–4 Introduction to Fluid Statics
3–5 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane Surfaces
Special Case: Submerged Rectangular Plate
3–6 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Curved Surfaces
3–7 Buoyancy and Stability
Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies
3–8 Fluids in Rigid-Body Motion
Special Case 1: Fluids at Rest
Special Case 2: Free Fall of a Fluid Body
Acceleration on a Straight Path
Rotation in a Cylindrical Container
John Ninomiya flying a cluster of 72
helium-filled balloons over
Temecula, California in April of 2003.
The helium balloons displace
approximately 230 m3 of air,
providing the necessary buoyant
force.
Don’t try this at home!
Objectives

• Determine the variation of pressure in a fluid at rest

• Calculate pressure using various kinds of manometers,
the barometer, and pressure measurement devices.
• Calculate the forces exerted by a fluid at rest on plane or
curved submerged surfaces.
• Analyze the stability of floating and submerged bodies.
• Analyze the rigid-body motion of fluids in containers
during linear acceleration or rotation.
3–1 PRESSURE
Pressure: A normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.
Pressure only deal with a gas or a liquid.
The counterpart of pressure in solids is normal stress.

68 kg 136 kg

Some basic
pressure gages.
Afeet=300cm2

0.23 kgf/cm2 0.46 kgf/cm2

P=68/300=0.23 kgf/cm2

The normal stress (or “pressure”)

on the feet of a chubby person is
much greater than on the feet of a
slim person
Pressure in a Fluid
The pressure is just the weight of all the fluid above you
Atmospheric pressure is just the weight of all the air above on
area on the surface of the earth

In a swimming pool the pressure on your body surface is just the

weight of the water above you (plus the air pressure above the
water)

So, the only thing that counts in fluid pressure is the gravitational
force acting on the mass ABOVE you

The deeper you go, the more weight above you and the more
pressure

Go to a mountain top and the air pressure is lower

Pressure in a Fluid

Pressure acts
perpendicular to
the surface and
increases at
greater depth.
Pressure in a Fluid
Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is measured
relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read
zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage pressure.
Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

Throughout this text, the pressure P will denote absolute pressure unless
specified otherwise.
EXAMPLE 3–1
A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 39.8 kPa at a location where the
atmospheric pressure is 99.97 kPa. Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber.

Solution: The gage pressure of a vacuum chamber is given. The absolute

pressure in the chamber is to be determined.
Analysis The absolute pressure is easily determined from;

Pabs = Patm-Pvac = 99.97-39.8= 60.17 kPa

Discussion Note that the local value of the atmospheric pressure is used
when determining the absolute pressure.
Pressure at a Point
From Newton’s second law, a force balance in the x- and z directions, gives
Forces acting on a wedge-shaped fluid element in equilibrium.

Pressure is
a scalar
quantity

Force balance in the x-direction:

 Pressure at any
point in a fluid is the
same in all
directions.
Pressure is the
compressive force
per unit area but it
is not a vector.
Pressure has
magnitude but not a
specific direction,
and thus it is a
Force balance in the z-direction: scalar quantity.

Vertical force on Total weight of wedge element

Vertical force on DA
lower boundary

= specific weight
 Divide through by

Now shrink the element to a point:

This can be done for any orientation a, so

 Variation of Pressure with Depth
Assuming the density of the fluid to be constant, a force balance in
the vertical z-direction gives;

The pressure of a fluid at rest Free-body diagram of a

increases with depth (as a rectangular fluid element in
result of added weight). equilibrium.
 Pressure in a liquid at
In a room filled with a gas, the variation of
rest increases linearly
pressure with height is negligible.
with distance from the
free surface.
The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid
regardless of geometry, provided that the points are interconnected by the same
fluid.
Pascal’s law: The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount.

The area ratio A2/A1 is called the ideal

mechanical advantage of the hydraulic lift.

Using a hydraulic car jack with a

piston area ratio of A2 /A1 =10,

For example, a person can lift a

1000-kg car by applying a force of
just 100 kgf ( =908 N)
Lifting of a large weight by a small force by
the application of Pascal’s law.
3–2 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and moderate
pressure differences. A manometer contains one or more
fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.

The basic manometer.

Differential
manometer Measuring the pressure
drop across a flow
section or a flow device

In stacked-up fluid layers, the

pressure change across a fluid layer
of density  and height h is gh.
EXAMPLE 3–2
A manometer is used to measure the pressure in a tank. The fluid used has
a specific gravity of 0.85, and the manometer column height is 55 cm. If the local
atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, determine the absolute pressure within the tank.

Solution The reading of a manometer attached to a

tank and the atmospheric pressure are given. The
absolute pressure in the tank is to be determined.
Assumptions The fluid in the tank is a gas whose
density is much lower than the density of manometer
fluid.

Discussion Note that the gage pressure in the tank is 4.6 kPa.
EXAMPLE 3–3
The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is measured by a multi
fluid manometer. The tank is located on a mountain at an altitude of 1400 m where
the atmospheric pressure is 85.6 kPa. Determine the air pressure in the tank if h1=0.1
m, h2=0.2 m, and h3=0.35 m. Take the densities of water, oil, and mercury to be 1000
kg/m3, 850 kg/m3 and 13,600 kg/m3 respectively.
Solution The pressure in a pressurized water tank is measured by a multifluid
manometer. Assumption The air pressure in the tank is uniform (its variation
with elevation is negligible due to its low density), and thus we can determine the
pressure at the air–water interface.

Discussion Note that jumping horizontally from one tube to the next and
realizing that pressure remains the same in the same fluid simplifies the
analysis considerably.
The Barometer
Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as the
pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C ( Hg=13,595 kg/m3)
under standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).

The length or the cross-sectional area of

the tube has no effect on the height of the
The basic barometer. fluid column of a barometer, provided that
the tube diameter is large enough to avoid
surface tension (capillary) effects.
 At high altitudes, a car engine generates
less power and a person gets less oxygen
because of the lower density of air.

A fan or compressor will displace 15 percent less air at that altitude for the same
volume displacement rate. Therefore, larger cooling fans may need to be selected
for operation at high altitudes to ensure the specified mass flow rate.

The lower pressure and thus lower density also affects lift and drag: airplanes need
a longer runway at high altitudes to develop the required lift, and they climb to very
high altitudes for cruising for reduced drag and thus better fuel efficiency.
EXAMPLE 3–5
Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the barometric reading
is 740 mm Hg and the gravitational acceleration is g=9.81 m/s2. Assume the
temperature of mercury to be 10°C, at which its density is 13,570 kg/m3.

Solution: The barometric reading at a location in height of mercury column is

given. The atmospheric pressure is to be determined.
Assumptions: The temperature of mercury is assumed to be 10°C.
Properties: The density of mercury is given to be 13,570 kg/m3.

Discussion Note that density changes with temperature, and thus this effect
should be considered in calculations.
EXAMPLE 3–6
The piston of a vertical piston–cylinder device vontaining a gas has a mass of 60 kg
and a cross-sectional area of 0.04 m2. The local atmospheric pressure is 0.97 bar,
and the gravitational acceleration is 9.81 m/s2.
(a) Determine the pressure inside the cylinder.
(b)If some heat is transferred to the gas and its volume is doubled do you expect the
pressure inside the cylinder to change.
Solution A gas is contained in a vertical cylinder with a heavy piston. The
pressure inside the cylinder and the effect of volume change on pressure
are to be determined.
Assumptions Friction between the piston and the cylinder is negligible.
Analysis (a) The gas pressure in the piston–cylinder device depends on
the atmospheric pressure and the weight of the piston.

b) The volume change will have no effect on the free-body diagram and therefore the
pressure inside the cylinder will remain the same.
Discussion If the gas behaves as an ideal gas, the absolute temperature
doubles when the volume is doubled at constant pressure.
 Other Pressure Measurement Devices
• Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal tube
bent like a hook whose end is closed and
connected to a dial indicator needle.
• Pressure transducers: Use various techniques to
convert the pressure effect to an electrical effect
such as a change in voltage, resistance, or
capacitance.
• Pressure transducers are smaller and faster, and
they can be more sensitive, reliable, and precise
than their mechanical counterparts.
• Strain-gage pressure transducers: Work by
having a diaphragm deflect between two chambers
open to the pressure inputs.
• Piezoelectric transducers: Also called solid-state
pressure transducers, work on the principle that an
electric potential is generated in a crystalline
substance when it is subjected to mechanical Various types of Bourdon
pressure. tubes used to measure
pressure.
INTRODUCTION TO FLUID STATICS
Fluid statics: Deals with problems associated with fluids at rest.
The fluid can be either gaseous or liquid.
Hydrostatics: When the fluid is a liquid.
Aerostatics: When the fluid is a gas.
In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between adjacent fluid layers, and thus
there are no shear (tangential) stresses in the fluid trying to deform it.
The only stress we deal with in fluid statics is the normal stress, which is the
pressure, and the variation of pressure is due only to the weight of the fluid.
The topic of fluid statics has significance only in gravity fields.
The design of many engineering systems such as water dams and liquid storage
tanks requires the determination of the forces acting on the surfaces using fluid
statics.
HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SUBMERGED PLANE
SURFACES
A plate, such as a gate valve in a dam, the wall of a liquid storage tank, or the
hull of a ship at rest, is subjected to fluid pressure distributed over its surface
when exposed to a liquid.
On a plane surface, the hydrostatic forces form a system of parallel forces, and
we often need to determine the magnitude of the force and its point of
application, which is called the center of pressure.

When analyzing hydrostatic forces on

submerged surfaces, the atmospheric
pressure can be subtracted for simplicity Hoover Dam.
when it acts on both sides of the structure. 29
 When analyzing hydrostatic forces on
submerged surfaces, the atmospheric
pressure can be subtracted for simplicity
when it acts on both sides of the structure..

Hydrostatic pressure increases along y;

First moment of the area is defined as;

Resultant force

Hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface

completely submerged in a liquid.
The pressure at the centroid of a surface is equivalent
to the average pressure on the surface.
The magnitude of the resultant force acting on a plane surface of a
completely submerged plate in a homogeneous (constant density) fluid is
equal to the product of the pressure Pc at the centroid of the surface and
the area A of the surface

The resultant force acting on a plane

surface is equal to the product of the
pressure at the centroid of the surface and
the surface area, and its line of action
passes through the center of pressure.
The centroid and the centroidal moments of inertia for some common
geometries.
Pressure acts normal to the surface, and
the hydrostatic forces acting on a flat plate
of any shape form a volume whose base is
the plate area and whose length is the
linearly varying pressure.
This virtual pressure prism has an
interesting physical interpretation: its
volume is equal to the magnitude of the
resultant hydrostatic force acting on the
plate since FR =  PdA, and the line of
action of this force passes through the
centroid of this homogeneous prism.
The projection of the centroid on the plate
is the pressure center.
Therefore, with the concept of pressure
prism, the problem of describing the The hydrostatic forces acting on a
resultant hydrostatic force on a plane plane surface form a pressure
surface reduces to finding the volume and prism whose base (left face) is the
the two coordinates of the centroid of this surface and whose length is the
pressure prism. pressure.
Special Case: Submerged Rectangular Plate

Hydrostatic force acting on the top

surface of a submerged tilted
rectangular plate.
Hydrostatic force acting on the top surface
of a submerged vertical rectangular plate.
Hydrostatic force acting on the top surface
of a submerged horizontal rectangular
plate.
EXAMPLE 3–8
A heavy car plunges into a lake during an accident and lands at the bottom of the
lake on its wheels. The door is 1.2 m high and 1 m wide, and the top edge of the door
is 8 m below the free surface of the water. Determine the hydrostatic force on the
door and the location of the pressure center, and discuss if the driver can open the
door.
Solution A car is submerged in water. The hydrostatic force on the door is to be
determined, and the likelihood of the driver opening the door is to be assessed.
Assumptions 1 The bottom surface of the lake is horizontal 2 The passenger
cabin is well-sealed so that no water leaks inside. 3 The door can be approximated
as a vertical rectangular plate. 4 The pressure in the passenger cabin remains at
atmospheric value since there is no water leaking in, and thus no compression of
the air inside. 5 The weight of the car is larger than the buoyant force acting on it.
Discussion A strong person can lift 100 kg, whose weight is 981 N or about 1 kN.
Also, the person can apply the force at a point farthest from the hinges (1 m farther)
for maximum effect and generate a moment of 1 kN · m. The resultant hydrostatic
force acts under the midpoint of the door, and thus a distance of 0.5 m from the
hinges. This generates a moment of 50.6 kN · m, which is about 50 times the
moment the driver can possibly generate. Therefore, it is impossible for the driver
to open the door of the car. The driver’s best bet is to let some water in (by rolling
the window down a little, for example) and to keep his or her head close to the
ceiling. The driver should be able to open the door shortly before the car is filled
with water since at that point the pressures on both sides of the door are nearly the
same and opening the door in water is almost as easy as opening it in air.
3–5 HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SUBMERGED
CURVED SURFACES

Determination of the hydrostatic force acting on a submerged curved surface.

When a curved surface is above the The hydrostatic force acting on a circular
liquid, the weight of the liquid and surface always passes through the center of
the vertical component of the the circle since the pressure forces are normal
hydrostatic force act in the opposite to the surface and they all pass through the
directions. center.
In a multilayered fluid of different densities can be determined by considering
different parts of surfaces in different fluids as different surfaces, finding the force
on each part, and then adding them using vector addition. For a plane surface, it
can be expressed as

The hydrostatic force on a surface submerged in a multilayered fluid

can be determined by considering parts of the surface in different
fluids as different surfaces.
EXAMPLE 3–9
A long solid cylinder of radius 0.8 m hinged at point A is
used as an automatic gate. When the water level reaches 5
m, the gate opens by turning about the hinge at point A.
Determine (a) the hydrostatic force acting on the cylinder
and its line of action when the gate opens and (b) the
weight of the cylinder per m length of the cylinder.
Solution The height of a water reservoir is controlled by a
cylindrical gate hinged to the reservoir. The hydrostatic
force on the cylinder and the weight of the cylinder per m
length are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Friction at the hinge is negligible. 2
Atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of the gate, and thus it
cancels out.
The magnitude and direction of the hydrostatic force
(b) When the water level is 5 m high, the gate is about to open and thus the
reaction force at the bottom of the cylinder is zero. Then the forces other than
those at the hinge acting on the cylinder are its weight, acting through the
center, and the hydrostatic force exerted by water. Taking a moment about
point A at the location of the hinge and equating it to zero gives

Discussion The weight of the cylinder per m length is determined to be

37.9 kN. It can be shown that this corresponds to a mass of 3863 kg per m
length and to a density of 1921 kg/m3 for the material of the cylinder.
3–6 BUOYANCY AND STABILITY
Buoyant force: The upward force a fluid exerts on a body immersed in it. The
buoyant force is caused by the increase of pressure with depth in a fluid.

The buoyant force acting on the plate is

equal to the weight of the liquid displaced
by the plate.
For a fluid with constant density, the
buoyant force is independent of the
distance of the body from the free surface.
It is also independent of the density of the
solid body.

A flat plate of uniform thickness h

submerged in a liquid parallel to the free
surface.

48
Stability

49
Buoyancy

Net upward
force is
called the
buoyant
force!!!
Easier to lift
a rock in
water!!
Buoyancy

51
The buoyant forces acting on a solid body submerged in a fluid and on a fluid
body of the same shape at the same depth are identical. The buoyant force FB
acts upward through the centroid C of the displaced volume and is equal in
magnitude to the weight W of the displaced fluid, but is opposite in direction. For
a solid of uniform density, its weight Ws also acts through the centroid, but its
magnitude is not necessarily equal to that of the fluid it displaces. (Here Ws > W
and thus Ws > FB; this solid body would sink.)
Archimedes’ principle: The buoyant force acting on a body immersed in a fluid
is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body, and it acts upward
through the centroid of the displaced volume.

52
For floating bodies, The weight of the entire body must be equal to the
buoyant force, which is the weight of the fluid whose volume is equal to
the volume of the submerged portion of the floating body:

A solid body dropped into a fluid will sink, float, or remain at rest at any
point in the fluid, depending on its average density relative to the density
of the fluid.
53
Flotation
A floating object displaces a weight of fluid equal to its own weight.
Flotation
The altitude of a hot air balloon is controlled by the temperature difference
between the air inside and outside the balloon, since warm air is less dense than
cold air. When the balloon is neither rising nor falling, the upward buoyant force
exactly balances the downward weight.
EXAMPLE 3–10
If you have a seawater aquarium, you have probably used a small
cylindrical glass tube with some lead-weight at its bottom to
measure the salinity of the water by simply watching how deep
the tube sinks. Such a device that floats in a vertical position and
is used to measure the specific gravity of a liquid is called a
hydrometer . The top part of the hydrometer extends above the
liquid surface, and the divisions on it allow one to read the
specific gravity directly. The hydrometer is calibrated such that in
pure water it reads exactly 1.0 at the air–water interface. (a)
Obtain a relation for the specific gravity of a liquid as a function of
distance z from the mark corresponding to pure water and (b)
determine the mass of lead that must be poured into a 1-cm-
diameter, 20-cm-long hydrometer if it is to float halfway (the 10-
cm mark) in pure water.

Solution The specific gravity of a liquid is to be measured by a

hydrometer. A relation between specific gravity and the vertical distance
from the reference level is to be obtained, and the amount of lead that
needs to be added into the tube for a certain hydrometer is to be
determined.
Assumptions 1 The weight of the glass tube is negligible relative to the
weight of the lead added. 2 The curvature of the tube bottom is
disregarded.
(a) Noting that the hydrometer is in static equilibrium, the buoyant force FB exerted by the
liquid must always be equal to the weight W of the hydrometer.

(b) Disregarding the weight of the glass tube, the amount of lead that needs to be added to
the tube is determined from the requirement that the weight of the lead be equal to the
buoyant force.

Discussion Note that if the hydrometer were required to sink only 5 cm in water, the
required mass of lead would be one-half of this amount. Also, the assumption that
the weight of the glass tube is negligible needs to be checked since the mass of lead
is only 7.85 g.
EXAMPLE 3–11
A crane is used to lower weights into the sea (density=1025 kg/m3) for an
underwater construction project. Determine the tension in the rope of the
crane due to a rectangular 0.4x0.4x3 m concrete block (density=2300
kg/m3) when it is (a) suspended in the air and (b) completely immersed in
water.
Solution A concrete block is lowered into the sea. The tension in the
rope is to be determined before and after the block is in water.
Assumptions 1 The buoyancy of air is negligible. 2 The weight of the
ropes is negligible.

(b) When the block is immersed in water, there is the additional force of buoyancy
acting upward. The force balance in this case gives

Discussion Note that the weight of the concrete block, and thus the tension of the rope,
decreases by (10.8-6.0)/10.8=55 % in water.
Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies

For floating bodies such as ships, stability

is an important consideration for safety.

Stability is easily
understood by analyzing
a ball on the floor.
60
Stability of a Model Barge

61
A floating body possesses vertical stability, while an immersed neutrally
buoyant body is neutrally stable since it does not return to its original
position after a disturbance.

An immersed neutrally buoyant body is (a) stable if the center of gravity

G is directly below the center of buoyancy B of the body, (b) neutrally
stable if G and B are coincident, and (c) unstable if G is directly above
B.

62
When the center of gravity G of An immersed neutrally buoyant body is (a) stable if the
an immersed neutrally buoyant center of gravity G is directly below the center of
body is not vertically aligned with buoyancy B of the body, (b) neutrally stable if G and B
the center of buoyancy B of the are coincident, and (c) unstable if G is directly above
body, it is not in an equilibrium B.
state and would rotate to its
stable state, even without any
disturbance.

63
A ball in a trough between
two hills is stable for small A floating body is stable if the body is bottom-heavy and
disturbances, but unstable thus the center of gravity G is below the centroid B of the
for large disturbances. body, or if the metacenter M is above point G. However,
the body is unstable if point M is below point G.

Metacentric height GM: The distance between the center of gravity G and the
metacenter M—the intersection point of the lines of action of the buoyant force
through the body before and after rotation.
The length of the metacentric height GM above G is a measure of the stability:
the larger it is, the more stable is the floating body.
64
Balancing Ball

65
FLUIDS IN RIGID-BODY MOTION
Pressure at a given point has the same magnitude in all
directions, and thus it is a scalar function.
In this section we obtain relations for the variation of
pressure in fluids moving like a solid body with or without
acceleration in the absence of any shear stresses (i.e., no
motion between fluid layers relative to each other).

66
Substituting into Newton’s second law of motion

The general equation of motion for a fluid that acts as a rigid

body (no shear stresses) is determined to be;
Special Case 1: Fluids at Rest
For fluids at rest or moving on a straight path at constant velocity, all
components of acceleration are zero, and the relations reduce to

The pressure remains constant in any horizontal direction (P is

independent of x and y) and varies only in the vertical direction as a
result of gravity [and thus P=P(z)]. These relations are applicable for both
compressible and incompressible fluids.
Special Case 2: Free Fall of a Fluid Body
A freely falling body accelerates under the influence of gravity. When the air
resistance is negligible, the acceleration of the body equals the gravitational
acceleration, and acceleration in any horizontal direction is zero.
Therefore, ax = ay = 0 and az = -g.

In a frame of reference moving with the

fluid, it behaves like it is in an environment
with zero gravity. Also, the gage pressure
in a drop of liquid in free fall is zero
throughout.

The effect of acceleration on the pressure

of a liquid during free fall and upward
acceleration.
Acceleration on a Straight Path

Rigid-body motion of a liquid in a

linearly accelerating tank.

70
Lines of constant pressure (which are the
projections of the surfaces of constant
pressure on the xz-plane) in a linearly
accelerating liquid. Also shown is the
vertical rise.
EXAMPLE 3–12
An 80-cm-high fish tank of cross section 2x0.6 m that is initially filled with water is to
be transported on the back of a truck. The truck accelerates from 0 to 90 km/h in 10 s.
If it is desired that no water spills during acceleration, determine the allowable initial
water height in the tank. Would you recommend the tank to be aligned with the long
or short side parallel to the direction of motion?
Solution A fish tank is to be transported on a truck. The
allowable water height to avoid spill of water during
acceleration and the proper orientation are to be
determined.
Assumptions 1 The road is horizontal during acceleration
so that acceleration has no vertical component (az=0). 2
Effects of splashing, braking, driving over bumps, and
climbing hills are assumed to be secondary and are not
considered. 3 The acceleration remains constant.
Discussion Note that the orientation of the tank is important in controlling the
vertical rise. Also, the analysis is valid for any fluid with constant density, not
just water, since we used no information that pertains to water in the solution.
Rotation in a Cylindrical Container
Consider a vertical cylindrical container partially filled
with a liquid. The container is now rotated about its
axis at a constant angular velocity of . After initial
transients, the liquid will move as a rigid body together
with the container. There is no deformation, and thus
there can be no shear stress, and every fluid particle
in the container moves with the same angular velocity.

Rigid-body motion of a
liquid in a rotating vertical
cylindrical container.
75
Free Vortex

76
The 6-meter spinning liquid-mercury mirror
of the Large Zenith Telescope located near Surfaces of constant pressure
Vancouver, British Columbia. in a rotating liquid.

77
Note that at a fixed radius, the pressure varies hydrostatically in the vertical
direction, as in a fluid at rest.
For a fixed vertical distance z, the pressure varies with the square of the radial
distance r, increasing from the centerline toward the outer edge.
In any horizontal plane, the pressure difference between the center and edge of
the container of radius R is

78
EXAMPLE 3–13
A 20-cm-diameter, 60-cm-high vertical cylindrical container is partially filled with 50-
cm-high liquid whose density is 850 kg/m3. Now the cylinder is rotated at a constant
speed. Determine the rotational speed at which the liquid will start spilling from the
edges of the container.
Solution A vertical cylindrical container partially filled with a
liquid is rotated. The angular speed at which the liquid will start
spilling is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The increase in the rotational speed is very slow
so that the liquid in the container always acts as a rigid body. 2
The bottom surface of the container remains covered with liquid
during rotation (no dry spots).

Discussion Note that the analysis is valid for any liquid since the
result is independent of density or any other fluid property. We
should also verify that our assumption of no dry spots is valid. The
liquid height at the center is;
79
Summary
Pressure

Pressure Measurement Devices

Introduction to Fluid Statics

Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane Surfaces

Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Curved Surfaces

Buoyancy and Stability

Fluids in Rigid-Body Motion

80
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

The density of seawater is 1030 kg/m3.

Which of the following values is correct for
the hydrostatic pressure at a depth of 10
000 m?

(a) 101 bar

(b) 1010 bar
(c) 10101 bar
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

The density of seawater is 1030 kg/m3.

Which of the following values is correct for
the hydrostatic pressure at a depth of 10
000 m?

(a) 101 bar

(b) 1010 bar
(c) 10101 bar
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

Principle: p = gz
Application: Calculation of pressure due to a column of liquid supporting a
weight and subject to external pressure.

A vertical cylinder of inside diameter 50 mm is

B = 1.1  10 Pa 5
sealed at the bottom and filled to a depth of 500
mm with mercury of relative density 13.6. The
barometric pressure is 1.1 bar. If the mercury
supports a piston of mass 5 kg (a perfect fit in the
cylinder with no leakage or friction), what is the
W m = 5kg pressure at the bottom of the cylinder?
H = 0.5m
(a) 2.02 bar (b) 1.32 bar (c) 0.2 bar
Would the answer be different if the cylinder were
inclined to the vertical?
 = 13.6  103 kg/m3 (a) yes (b) no
p?
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

Principle: p = gz
Application: Calculation of pressure due to a column of liquid supporting a
weight and subject to external pressure.

A vertical cylinder of inside diameter 50 mm is

B = 1.1  10 Pa 5
sealed at the bottom and filled to a depth of 500
mm with mercury of relative density 13.6. The
barometric pressure is 1.1 bar. If the mercury
supports a piston of mass 5 kg (a perfect fit in the
cylinder with no leakage or friction), what is the
W m = 5kg pressure at the bottom of the cylinder?
H = 0.5m
(a) 2.02 bar (b) 1.32 bar (c) 0.2 bar
Would the answer be different if the cylinder were
inclined to the vertical?
 = 13.6  103 kg/m3 (a) yes (b) no
p?
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

Principle: p = gz
Application: Calculation of pressure due to a column of liquid supporting a
weight and subject to external pressure.

A vertical cylinder of inside diameter 50 mm is

B = 1.1  10 Pa 5
sealed at the bottom and filled to a depth of 500
mm with mercury of relative density 13.6. The
barometric pressure is 1.1 bar. If the mercury
supports a piston of mass 5 kg (a perfect fit in the
cylinder with no leakage or friction), what is the
W m = 5kg pressure at the bottom of the cylinder?
H = 0.5m
(a) 2.02 bar (b) 1.32 bar (c) 0.2 bar
Would the answer be different if the cylinder were
inclined to the vertical?
 = 13.6  103 kg/m3 (a) yes (b) no
p?
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

B = 1.1  105 Pa
 D 2   D 2   D 2 
p    B    W  g   H 0
 4   4   4 
     

W m = 5kg  4 
p B  W    gH

H = 0.5m 2
 D 

 4 
p 1.1x105  5 2 
 13.6 x103 x9.81x 0.5
  .0.05 
 = 13.6  103 kg/m3
p? p = 2.02 bar
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

B = 1.1  105 Pa

m = 5 kg

W cos 
 4 
p B  W   cos   gH cos 
2
 D 
.g.V. cos 

p?
Manometry (pressure
Hydrostatics measurement)
– Interactive question

p.A – (p + p).A = m.a = 0 Δp = 0

FLUID AT REST – ISOBARS HORIZONTAL

(EQUAL PRESSURES AT SAME LEVEL IN SINGLE FLUID)
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

Principle: Hydrostatic pressure increases in proportion to depth in a uniform

density fluid at rest
Application: Pressure variation in a vessel containing an object submerged within
a liquid.

With the balloon held under water, is the

pressure at A
WATER
(a) Higher than without the balloon

BALLOON (b) Unchanged

(c) Lower than without the balloon?

STRING
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

Principle: Hydrostatic pressure increases in proportion to depth in a uniform

density fluid at rest
Application: Pressure variation in a vessel containing an object submerged within
a liquid.

With the balloon held under water, is the

pressure at A
WATER
(a) Higher than without the balloon

BALLOON (b) Unchanged

(c) Lower than without the balloon?

STRING
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

B
h WATER

BALLOON

H
STRING

pA=  g H pA=  g (H + h)
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

Principle: Lines of constant pressure (isobars) in a continuous volume of a

constant-density fluid at rest are horizontal
Application: Pressure variation in vertical and inclined tubes

In the diagram, which of the

following conditions applies to
the pressure at A, B, and C?

(a) pA > pB pB < pC

(b) pA = pB pB < pC
(c) pA = pB = pC
(d) pA > pB pB > pC
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

Principle: Lines of constant pressure (isobars) in a continuous volume of a

constant-density fluid at rest are horizontal
Application: Pressure variation in vertical and inclined tubes

In the diagram, which of the

following conditions applies to
the pressure at A, B, and C?

(a) pA > pB pB < pC

(b) pA = pB pB < pC
(c) pA = pB = pC
(d) pA > pB pB > pC
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

Principle: Lines of constant pressure (isobars) in a continuous volume of a

constant-density fluid at rest are horizontal
Application: Pressure variation in a manometer

In the manometer system, the

points of equal pressure are

(a) A and D

(b) A and C

(c) B and C

(d) B and D
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

Principle: Lines of constant pressure (isobars) in a continuous volume of a

constant-density fluid at rest are horizontal
Application: Pressure variation in a manometer

In the manometer system, the

points of equal pressure are

(a) A and D

(b) A and C

(c) B and C

(d) B and D
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

Principle: In a fluid at rest, isobars (i.e. lines or surfaces of constant pressure are
horizontal)
Application: U - tube manometer

The following table shows the pressures

at locations 1, 2 and 3. Which row of the
table is correct?

1 2 3 3

(a) P p  Fgh B  MgH p + Fgh

(b) 0 Mgh MgH Fgh
(c) P p + Fgh B + MgH p + Fgh
(d) p p + Fgh B  MgH p  Fgh
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

Principle: In a fluid at rest, isobars (i.e. lines or surfaces of constant pressure are
horizontal)
Application: U - tube manometer

The following table shows the pressures

at locations 1, 2 and 3. Which row of the
table is correct?

1 2 3 3

(a) P p  Fgh B  MgH p + Fgh

(b) 0 Mgh MgH Fgh
(c) P p + Fgh B + MgH p + Fgh
(d) p p + Fgh B  MgH p  Fgh
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

Which is the correct value for H?

(a) 0.361 m

(b) 0.365 m

(c) 0.371 m

(d) 0.376 m

Hint: Write down equations for p on

the left and right-hand sides, equate
the two and solve for H.
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

Which is the correct value for H?

(a) 0.361 m

(b) 0.365 m

(c) 0.371 m

(d) 0.376 m

Hint: Write down equations for p on

the left and right-hand sides, equate
the two and solve for H.
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

 H p B   M gH
LHS p  p   F g  h   RHS
 2

 H
p B   M gH   F g  h  
 2

H
1.04  1.0110  2.5 x9.81x0.2
5

 850  2.5  x9.81

 
 2 

H 0.361 m
Hydrostatics – Interactive question
Principles: Equal volumes and hydrostatic pressure variation
Application: Inclined-tube manometer

If we combine (1), (2) and (3), which is correct?

(a) p = B  FgH + MgL  sinθ  δA 

 A
L.A = h.A (1) (b) p = B + MgL sin
LHS p′ = B + Mg (h + L sin) (2) A
(c) p = B + FgH + Mg L
A
RHS p′ = p + Fg (H + L sin) (3) A + (   )gLsin
(d) p = B  FgH +Mg L M F
A
Hydrostatics – Interactive question
Principles: Equal volumes and hydrostatic pressure variation
Application: Inclined-tube manometer

If we combine (1), (2) and (3), which is correct?

(a) p = B  FgH + MgL  sinθ  δA 

 A
L.A = h.A (1) (b) p = B + MgL sin
LHS p′ = B + Mg (h + L sin) (2) A
(c) p = B + FgH + Mg L
A
RHS p′ = p + Fg (H + L sin) (3) + (M  F)gLsin
(d) p = B  FgH +Mg L
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

Principle: Equal volumes

If L = 400 mm, d = 5 mm and D = 100 mm, which is the correct value for ?

(a) 20 mm (b) 1 mm (c) 0.2 mm

Hydrostatics – Interactive question

Principle: Equal volumes

If L = 400 mm, d = 5 mm and D = 100 mm, which is the correct value for ?

(a) 20 mm (b) 1 mm (c) 0.2 mm

Hydrostatics – Interactive question

Principle: Hydrostatic pressure variation

If pREF = 0.015 bar,  = 30, M = 850 kg/m3, F = 2 kg/m3 and h = 0.2 m, which is
the correct value for p?
(a) 0.3 bar (b) 713 Pa (c) 3168 Pa (d) 1.7 bar
Hydrostatics – Interactive question

Principle: Hydrostatic pressure variation

If pREF = 0.015 bar,  = 30, M = 850 kg/m3, F = 2 kg/m3 and h = 0.2 m, which is
the correct value for p?
(a) 0.3 bar (b) 713 Pa (c) 3168 Pa (d) 1.7 bar

Hint: calculate p for the right-and left-hand side, then find p from the equation
The pressure of water flowing through a pipe is measured by the arrangement shown in
Figure. For the values given, calculate the pressure in the pipe. (MT1 G(1) 2012)

10
8/12

=33.6 kPa

10
The gage pressure of the air in the tank shown in Figure is measured to be 65 kPa.
Determine the differential height h of the mercury column.

10
11
11
A piston having a cross-sectional area of 0.07 m2 is located in a cylinder containing water as
shown in Figure. An open U-tube manometer is connected to the cylinder as shown. For h 1=60
mm and h2=100 mm, what is the value of the applied force, P, acting on the piston? The weight
of the piston is negligible.

11
11
A 25-mm-diameter shaft is pulled through a cylindrical bearing as shown in Figure. The lubricant
that fills the 0.3-mm gap between the shaft and bearing is an oil having a kinematic viscosity of
8.0 10-4 m2/s and a specific gravity of 0.91. Determine the force P required to pull the shaft at a
velocity of 3 m/s. Assume the velocity distribution in the gap is linear.

11
11
Pressure gage B is to measure the pressure at point A in a water flow. If the pressure at
B is 87 kPa, estimate the pressure at A, in kPa. Assume all fluids are at 20°C.

11
11
A 50x30x20-cm block weighing 150 N is to be moved at a constant velocity of 0.8 m/s on an
inclined surface with a friction coefficient of 0.27. (a) Determine the force F that needs to be
applied in the horizontal direction. (b) If a 0.4-mm-thick oil film with a dynamic viscosity of 0.012
Pa.s is applied between the block and inclined surface, determine the percent reduction in the
required force.

11
Friction force: Ff=fFN1

11
Percentage reduction in the required force:

12
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