Research Methodology

Arch 5391
LECTURE-NOTE

“Research brings science to our art. . . . To move the

art of architecture forward, however, we need to
supplement Intuition with science” Kieran’s
By: Melese B. (M.Sc.)
October, 2019
Arba Minch, Ethiopia
COURSE OBJETIVE

 The course aims to introduce the basics of research

methodology to undertake Architectural Research
solving building design and construction problems.

• research embodies the scientific model of

knowledge as “truth” and “fact” based on
quantitative data, ...”
• …design is related to the innate human
ability to plan and pattern any disparate set
of inputs toward a comprehensible, or
desired, end.
COURSE CONTENT

I. Introduction to Research

II. Research Problem

III. Literature Review

IV. Research Methodology

V. Research Methods

VI. Research Design

VII. Writing research proposal

VIII. Research Report Writing

I. What is Research
a systematic quest for undiscovered truth
the search for an answer to an unanswered question

 ‘a systematic attempt to provide answers to questions’

( Tuckman,1972).
 a ‘systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled

observations that may lead to the development of generalizations,

principles or theories resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate
control of events’ (Best and Khan, 1989).
 it is a systematic, objective and comprehensive investigation of
certain phenomenon which involves accurate gathering and
recording and critical analyses and interpretation of all
facts about the phenomenon for theoretical or practical ends.
Characteristics of research
Systematic Unhurried activity
Objective Requires courage
Comprehensive Unbiased and logical
Critical Controlled
Rigorous Builds on existing data
Valid
Verifiable
Empirical
Solution oriented
Predictability
Accuracy
Function of research
1. Research corrects perceptions as well as expands them.

2. Research gathers information on subjects or

phenomena we lack of or have little knowledge about it.

3. Research develops and evaluates concepts, practices

and theories.

4. Research develops and evaluates methods and/or

strategies that test concepts, practices and theories.

5. Research obtains knowledge for practical purposes

Stages in the Research Process
 consists of series of actions or steps necessary to
effectively carry out research and the desired
sequencing of these steps.
Problem Identification
Review of related literature
Objectives formulation
Formulate hypothesis/assumption
Theoretical/ Conceptual framework
Research Design/sampling selection
Data collection
Data processing
Data analysis and interpretation
Report writing
Stages in the Research Process
Flow diagram
Problem Identification

Review of Related Literature

Differences between Design and Research
Flow diagram
2. Research Problem
WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?
 Without a problem, no research can be
undertaken. The problem is the heart of every
research project because it is paramount in
importance to the success of the research effort.
a research problem is exactly a problem that
someone would like to research.
o It involves the areas of concern of researchers which
they wish to improve, eliminate certain difficulties or
seek answers to questions or existing conditions.
 A research problem is the situation that causes
the researcher to feel apprehensive, confused or
not at ease
2. Research Problem
WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?
 It is the demarcation of a problem area within
a certain context involving the WHO or WHAT,
the WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of the
problem situation.
 Research can be aimed at clarifying or
substantiating an existing theory, at clarifying
contradictory findings, at correcting a faulty
methodology, at correcting the inadequate or
unsuitable use of statistical techniques, at
reconciling conflicting opinions, or at solving
existing practical problems.
2. Research Problem
IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM
 think on what caused the need to do the
research
 Are there questions about this problem to which
answers have not been found up to the present?
 Research originates from a need that arises.
A clear distinction between the PROBLEM
and the PURPOSE should be made.
 The problem is the aspect the researcher worries
about, think about, wants to find a solution for.
 The purpose is to solve the problem, for example,
find answers to the question(s).
 If there is no clear problem formulation, the
2. Research Problem
IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM
 Keep the following in mind:
 Outline the general context of the problem area.
 Highlight key theories, concepts and ideas
current in this area.
 What appear to be some of the underlying
assumptions of this area?
 Why are these issues identified important?
 What needs to be solved?
 Read the area to be researched (subject) to get to
know the background and to identify unanswered
questions or controversies, and/or identify the
most significant issues for further exploration.
2. Research Problem
 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The research problem should be stated in such a way
that it would lead to analytical thinking on the part of
the researcher with the aim of possible concluding
solutions to the stated problem. Research problems can
be stated in the form of either questions or statements.
o The research problem should always be formulated
grammatically correct and as correctly as possible.
You should bear in mind the wording (expressions) you
use. Avoid meaningless words. There should be no
doubt in the mind of the reader what your intentions
are.
o Demarcating the research field into manageable parts
by dividing the main problem into sub-problems is of
utmost importance.
2. Research Problem
Sub-problems
Sub-problems are problems related to the main
problem identified.
Sub-problems flow from the main problem and
make up the main problem.
It is the means to reach the set goal in a
manageable way and contribute to solving the
problem.
2. Research Problem
 CHECKLIST FOR TESTING THE FEASIBILITY OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

1. Is the problem of current interest? Will the research results

have social, educational or scientific value?
2. Will it be possible to apply the results in practice?
3. Does the research contribute to the field of sociology?
4. Will the research opt new problems and lead to further
research?
5. Is the research problem important? Will you be proud of the
result?
6. Is there enough scope left within the area of research or field of
research?
7. Can you find answer to the problem through research? Will you
be able to handle the research problem?
8. Will it be practically possible to undertake the research?
9. Will it be possible for another research to replicate the
research?
2. Research Problem
 CHECKLIST FOR TESTING THE FEASIBILITY OF THE RESEARCH
PROBLEM
10. Is the research free of any ethical problems and
limitations?
11. Will it have any value?
12. Do you have the necessary knowledge and skills to do the
research? Are you qualified to undertake the research?
13. Is the problem important to you and are you motivated to
undertake the research?
14. Is the research viable in your situation? Do you have
enough time and energy to complete the project?
15. Do you have the necessary funds for the research?
16. Will you be able to complete the project within the
available time.
17. Do you have access to the needed statistics and computer
facilities needed for the research?
2. Research Problem
 Other Criteria’s for selecting research problem

i. Relevance
ii. Avoidance of duplication
iii. Urgency of data need (timelines)
iv. Political acceptability
v. Feasibility
vi. Applicability of Possible
Results/Recommendations
vii. Ethical acceptance
2. Research Problem
 Sources of Research Problems
 personal experience
 common sense
 theory
 Past research
 Practical problems
 Journals, books, theses and dissertations and
the mass
 Technological change
 Friends, colleagues, professors, consultants
 conference, symposia, dialogue or even
ordinary meetings.
3. Review of related Literature
 Information and conclusions drawn by other researchers
• citations should be used extensively
• avoid overuse of direct quotations
 NOT the place for the researcher to compile the
findings of other researchers but to be able to use
them in connection with his current study
 ends with a summary of the information
presented
3. Review of related Literature
 Purpose of literature Review ;
1. It broadens the researcher’s knowledge on the chosen research
problem.
2. a means of ensuring originality in the conduct of one’s research.
3. a way of ensuring clarity and focus on one’s study.
4. It can help the researcher in designing his proposed research.
5. provide the research insights on the weaknesses and strengths of
previous studies.
6. It can provide findings and conclusions of past studies, which a
researcher can use in relating to his findings and conclusions.
7. It can help the researcher in formulating the theoretical and
conceptual framework of the study.
8. provides the researcher information about the aspects of the
problem which have not been investigated or explored before
3. Review of related Literature
 Guidelines in Doing the Review

 Go over reading materials you have in the University library.

 Search for existing literature in your learning resource

center.
 Prepare a working bibliography.

 Record important details of what you have reviewed

 Refrain from copying entire chapters without proper

documentation or acknowledgments.
 Make a related study on the needs and relevance of your

investigation.
3. Review of related Literature
 Writing the review;
 The text of the review should be brief and to the
point.
 Have a plan on how you are to present the review
 Emphasize relatedness
 Review the literature; don’t reproduce it
 Presenting the Review.
a) chronological or periodic approach;
b) thematic or variable/factor approach; and
c) country of origin or geographic approach.
3. Review of related Literature
 Chronological or periodic approach;
• literature and studies are presented
according to the year when they were
written.
• When using this approach, the review
can be presented following the outline
below:
Introduction
Recent literature and studies
Least recent literature and studies
Synthesis of the review
3. Review of related Literature
 Thematic or variable/factor approach;
• literature and studies with the same findings
or themes are grouped together
• When using this approach, research and
conceptual literature can be presented
following the given outline below:
Introduction
Literature and studies on variable 1
Literature and studies on variable 2 and
other variables
Synthesis of the review
3. Review of related Literature
Country of origin or geographic approach.
• literature and studies are categorized
by the country where they came from
• When using this pattern, literature and
studies can be presented based on the
following outline:
• Introduction
• Foreign literature and studies
• Local literature and studies
• Synthesis of the review
3. Review of related Literature
 Citation techniques and Reference list;
• Citation standards and styles
 In-text Citation: applied when you summarize,
paraphrase, or quote related ideas from sources.
author-date citation method; the surname of the
authors and the year of publication
 direct quotations: surname of the authors, the
year of publication and page number
 A work by multiple authors; three, four or five
authors
 cite all the authors for the first occurrence
in the subsequent occurrences, cite only the
surname of the first author followed by et al. and
the year of publication.
3. Review of related Literature
 Citation techniques and Reference list;
• Citation of a work cited in a secondary source
You need to give secondary source followed by the
original work placed in parenthesis in text when you
use a work cited in a secondary source.
• Reference list
 provides information necessary to identify and
retrieve each source.
 include only the ones used in the text in their
reference list
 All references should be arranged strictly
alphabetically
You are rather advised to search and access the
original work to cite in your research.
3. Review of related Literature
 Citation techniques and Reference list;
• Different sources and types of publications
 Journal Article;
o Name (s) of author (s). Year of publication of the
article. Title of the article. Full name of the journal,
volume no; and pages.
 Books;
 contribution to composite books;
A work cited in a secondary source;
Contribution to conferences, symposium, workshop,
seminar or proceedings
Thesis
Government/Institution/Society publications
Internet articles based on print sources….
4. Research Objective & Inquiry
 Research Objective ;
what the researcher want to achieve through the study
General objective
 Provide a short statement of the scientific goal to be pursued
Specific objective
 Operational and action oriented against which the success
of the research will be judged
 Emanate from the general objective and stated in action-
oriented words
o To determine
o To find out
o To assess
o To measure
o To explore etc
These determines the type of research design/method to
be adopted to achieve them
4. Research Objective & Inquiry
Research Inquiry ;
• Research question
 what the researcher intends to find answer.
 a question that a research project sets out to answer
• Inquiry: a request for information
 a systematic investigation often of a matter of public
interest
 examination into facts or Principles (Research)
• Question
 An interrogative expression often used to test
knowledge
 An act or instance of asking; inquiry
 Seeks to improve knowledge on important topic
5. Research Topic
 Topic;
• Area within a given field of study that the researcher
explore in his research
 Types of Research topic
1. Indicative type: state the subject of the proposal
rather than expected out put
2. Hanging type: too long and have two parts
 General part
 Stated in general topic and followed by the specific
 Specific part
 State the particular case or area of the proposal focus
3. Question Type: ask for or check for validity,
application, significance or impact.
 Student Activity-1
Write your;
1. Research Topic;
2. Statement of the Problem
3. Research question
4. Research objectives
 General objective
 Specific objective

5. Review of literature
4.Research Methodology

Methodology
Vs.
Methods
Research- Methodology
 Methodology;

a way to systematically solve the research problem

 the philosophy or the general principle which will guide

your research.
 various steps that are generally adopted by the

researcher in studying his research problem along with the

logic behind them
 the overall approach to studying your topic and includes

issues you need to think about such as the constraints,

dilemmas and ethical choices within your research.
Research- Methodology
 Methodology;

a science of studying how research is done

scientifically.
the various steps that are generally adopted by a

researcher in studying his research problem along

with the logic behind them
 there are two basic approaches to research
Quantitative Approach

 Qualitative Approach
Research- Methodology
 Quantitative Approach.
 generation of data in quantitative form which can be
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and
rigid fashion
 Quantitative research generates statistics through the use
of large-scale survey research, using methods such as
questionnaires or structured interviews.
 In quantitative research you can define your research
methods early in the planning stage.
 based on the measurement of quantity or amount,
applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantity
 can be further sub-classified into inferential,
experimental and simulation approaches to research.
Research- Methodology
 Qualitative Approach.
• Concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes,
opinions and behaviour
• a function of researcher’s insights and impressions
• generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the
form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative
analysis
• Qualitative research explores attitudes, behaviour and
experiences through such methods as interviews or focus
groups
• the techniques of focus group interviews, projective
techniques and depth interviews are used
• in some types of qualitative research it may be difficult to
define your methods specifically
Research- Methodology
 The basic types of research;
i. Descriptive;
• includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.
• The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the
state of affairs as it exists at present
• the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only
report what has happened or what is happening.
• The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are
survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and
correlational methods.
ii. Analytical;
• the researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of
the material.
iii. Historical:
• utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to
Research- Methodology
 The basic types of research methodology;
iv. Explanatory:
• The objective of exploratory research is the
development of hypotheses rather than their testing
v. Case study or in-depth approaches to reach
the basic causal relations.
• Such studies usually go deep into the causes of
things or events that interest us, using very small
samples and very deep probing data gathering
devices.
vi. Experimental
Research Methods
 Methods
 All those methods/ techniques for the conduction of research
usually related with data collection
 refer to the methods the researchers use in performing
research operations
 research methods are the tools you use to collect your data.
 Can be viewed in three groups
i. Data collection methods
• Interview, questionnaire, observation etc
ii. Data analysis methods
• Statistical calculations
iii. Result evaluation methods
• Accuracy evaluation
 Methods of research refers to how the research to be
undertaken are to be carried out.
Research Methods
 Data collection methods
TYPES OF DATA’S
• Primary data
 Theprimary data are those which are collected afresh
and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in
character
• Secondary data
 The secondary data are those which have already
been collected by someone else and which have
already been passed through the statistical process.
 sources of literatures; Published and unpublished
 The methods of collecting primary and secondary data differ
since primary data are to be originally collected, while in case of
secondary data the nature of data collection work is merely that
of compilation.
Research Methods
 COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
• Interview, focus groups, questionnaire and observation
 Interviews
• Unstructured; in-depth interviews, life history interviews
where the researcher attempts to achieve a holistic
understanding of the interviewees’ point of view or situation.
• Semi-structured; the researcher wants to know specific
information which can be compared and contrasted with
information gained in other interviews.
 Interview Schedule: a list of specific questions or a list of
topics to be discussed to each interview to ensure continuity.
• Structured interviews; frequently used in market
research.
 used in quantitative research and can be conducted face-to-face
or over the telephone, sometimes with the aid of lap-top
computers
Research Methods
 Data collection methods
• Interview, focus groups, questionnaire and observation
 Focus groups; discussion groups or group interviews.
• A number of people are asked to come together in a
group to discuss a certain issue.
• The discussion is led by a moderator or facilitator who
introduces the topic, asks specific questions, controls
digressions and stops break-away conversations.
• He/she makes sure that no one person dominates the
discussion whilst trying to ensure that each of the
participants makes a contribution
• may be recorded using visual or audio recording
equipment.
Research Methods
 Data collection methods
• Interview, focus groups, questionnaire and observation
 Questionnaires;
• Closed-ended:
 used to generate statistics in quantitative research,
• open-ended:
 used in qualitative research, although some researchers will
quantify the answers during the analysis stage
 The questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick, but instead
leaves a blank section for the respondent to write in an
answer
• combination of the two:
 use a combination of both open and closed questions
Research Methods
 Data collection methods
• Interview, focus groups, questionnaire and
observation
 Participant observation;
• There are two main ways in which researchers observe:
 Direct observation; used in areas such as health and
psychology
o involves the observation of a ‘subject’ in a certain
situation and often uses technology such as visual
recording equipment or one-way mirrors.
 Participant observation.
o done by immersing themselves within that culture.
o take months or years, as they need to build up a lasting
and trusting relationship with those people being studied
Research Methods
 Data Analysis methods

 after collection the data has to be processed

and analyzed in accordance with the outline laid
down for the purpose at the time of developing
the research plan.
 This is essential for a scientific study and for

ensuring that we have all relevant data for

making contemplated comparisons and analysis
Research Methods
Processing and Analysis Data
• processing implies editing, coding, classification and
tabulation of collected data so that they are amenable to
analysis.
• analysis refers to the computation of certain measures
along with searching for patterns of relationship that exist
among data-groups
• “in the process of analysis, relationships or differences
supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should
be subjected to statistical tests of significance to determine
with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions”.
• analysis of data - involves a number of closely related
operations which are performed with the purpose of
summarizing the collected data and organizing these in such a
manner that they answer the research question(s)
Research Methods
 Processing operation
1. Editing;
• a process of examining the collected raw data (specially in surveys) to detect
errors and omissions and to correct these when possible.
 field editing
 Central editing.

2. Coding
• the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that responses
can be put into a limited number of categories or classes.
3. Classification
• the process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics
 Classification according to attributes
 Classification according to class-intervals

4. Tabulation
• to arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order
• the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact form
(i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further analysis
• An orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows
Research Methods
 Elements / types of Analysis
 computation of certain indices or measures along with searching for
patterns of relationship that exist among the data groups
 involves estimating the values of unknown parameters of the
population and testing of hypotheses for drawing inferences
 categorized as descriptive analysis and inferential analysis
 “Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distributions of one
variable. This study provides us with profiles of companies, work groups,
persons and other subjects on any of a multiple of characteristics
such as size. Composition, efficiency, preferences, etc.”
 Correlation analysis
• Studies the joint variation of two or more variables for determining the
amount of correlation between two or more variables.
 Causal Analysis- can be termed as regression analysis
• concerned with the study of how one or more variables affect changes in
another variable.
• a study of functional relationships existing between two or more variables
Research Methods
Elements / types of Analysis
 Descriptive analysis.
 Inferential analysis
• concerned with the various tests of significance for testing
hypotheses in order to determine with what validity data can
be said to indicate some conclusion or conclusions.
• It is also concerned with the estimation of population values. It
is mainly on the basis of inferential analysis that the task of
interpretation (i.e., the task of drawing inferences and
conclusions) is performed.
Research Methods
 Data Interpretation
 After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to
accomplish the task of drawing inferences followed by report
writing.
 It is only through interpretation that the researcher can expose
relations and processes that underlie his findings.
 Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from
the collected facts after an analytical and/or experimental
study
 it is a search for broader meaning of research findings
 interpretation has two major aspects
i. the effort to establish continuity in research through linking
the results of a given study with those of another
ii. the establishment of some explanatory concepts.
Research Methods
 Data Interpretation
 Interpretation is concerned with relationships within
the collected data, partially overlapping analysis.
• also extends beyond the data of the study to include
the results of other research, theory and hypotheses.”
• is the device through which the factors that seem to
explain what has been observed by researcher in the
course of the study can be better understood and it
also provides a theoretical conception which can serve
as a guide for further researches
Research Methods
 Techniques Interpretation
• The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:
i. Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he
has found and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the
underlying processes and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that
lies under the surface layer of his diversified research findings
ii. Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered
while interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be
a key factor in understanding the problem under consideration.
iii. It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult
someone having insight into the study and who is frank and honest and
will not hesitate to point out omissions and errors in logical argumentation.
iv. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after
considering all relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false
generalization. He must be in no hurry while interpreting results, for quite
often the conclusions, which appear to be all right at the beginning, may
not at all be accurate.
5. Research Design

Research Design
Vs.
Sampling Design
Research Design
 “A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure.” (Claire Selltiz, 1962,
p. 50)
the conceptual structure within
which research is conducted; it
constitutes the blueprint for the
collection, measurement and analysis
of data.
Research Design
includes an outline of what the
researcher will do.
(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be
used?
Research Design
the overall research design into the following
parts:
i. Sampling Design
• deals with the method of selecting items to be
observed for the given study;
ii. Observational Design
• relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made
iii. Statistical Design
• concerns with the question of how many items are
to be observed and how the information and data
gathered are to be analyzed
iv. Operational Design
Research Design
 Sampling Design
• A sample design is a definite plan for
obtaining a sample from a given population.
• It refers to the technique or the procedure the
researcher would adopt in selecting items for
the sample.
 the number of items to be included in the
sample i.e., the size of the sample.
Sample design is determined before data are
collected
• Sampling is a procedure of selection of a
representative portion of a population
Research Design
 Sampling Design

• Research participants or target

groups or population
• A population - refers to all members of
any well-defined set or group of people or
objects that is the focus of the
investigation and from which a sample is
drawn.
• A sample -refers to a subgroup or
portion of the population selected to
represent the population.
Research Design
 Steps in Sample Design
• clearly define the set of objects, technically
called the Universe, to be studied
• decide of sample units that has to be selected
for his study.
• Prepare comprehensive, correct, reliable and
appropriate source list from which sample is to be
drawn
• Decide the number of items to be selected from
the universe to constitute a sample.
• determining the question of the specific population
parameters which are of interest.
• Budget constraint
Research Design
 Sampling Methods/Techniques
Research Design
 types of Sampling
 Probability sampling
• also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance
sampling’.
• every item of the universe has an equal
chance of inclusion in the sample.
• It is a lottery method in which individual units
are picked up from the whole group not
deliberately but by some mechanical process.
• it is blind chance alone that determines
whether one item or the other is selected.
Research Design
Types of probability sampling
1. Random sampling;
 ensures the law of Statistical Regularity which
states that if on an average the sample chosen is a
random one, the sample will have the same
composition and characteristics as the universe.
2. Systematic sampling
3. Stratified sampling
4. Cluster sampling
5. Area Sampling
6. Multi-stage sampling
Research Design
Types of probability sampling
Research Design
Non-probability sampling
• sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for
estimating the probability that each item in the population
has of being included in the sample.
• it is known as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling
and judgment sampling
 items for the sample are selected deliberately by the
researcher; his choice concerning the items remains
supreme.
 the organizers of the inquiry purposively choose the
particular units of the universe for constituting a
sample on the basis that the small mass that they so
select out of a huge one will be typical or
representative of the whole.
Research Design
 Types of non-probability sampling
1. Quota sampling
2. Purposive Sampling
3. Convenience Sampling
/accidental sampling/
4. Snowball Sampling /chain
referral sampling/
Research Design
 Types of non-probability sampling
Research Design
 basic Sampling Design
Validity and Reliability of the Instrument
Validity

• refers to the accuracy or truthfulness of a

measurement.
• Are we measuring what we think we are?

• There are at least three types of validity

that should be addressed and you should

state what steps you took to assess validity.
Validity and Reliability of the Instrument
Face validity refers to the likelihood that a
question will be misunderstood or
misinterpreted.
Pretesting or validating a survey is a good way
to increase the likelihood of face validity.
• The content validity: refers to whether an
instrument provides adequate coverage of a
topic.
• Expert opinions, literature searches, and pretest
open-ended questions help to establish content
validity.
Construct validity refers to the theoretical
Validity and Reliability of the
Instrument
Reliability is synonymous with repeatability or

stability. A measurement that yields consistent

results over time is said to be reliable. When a
measurement is prone to random error, it lacks
reliability.
There are three basic methods to test
reliability :
1. Test-retest,
2. Equivalent form, and
Validity and Reliability of the
Instrument
methods to test reliability :

 Most research uses some form of internal

consistency.
When there is a scale of items all attempting to

measure the same construct, then we would

expect a large degree of coherence in the way
people answer those items. Various statistical
tests can measure the degree of coherence.
Validity and Reliability of the
Instrument
The correlation between the items is a measure
of their reliability.
 Assumptions.
• All research studies make assumptions.
• The most obvious is that the sample represents the
population.
• Another common assumptions are that an
instrument has validity and is measuring the
desired constructs.
• Still another is that respondents will answer a
survey truthfully.
• The important point is for the researcher to state
specifically what assumptions are being made.
 Student Activity-2
Write your Research Methodology
1. Research approach;
1. Qualitative
2. Quantitative
2. Type of data and source
1. Primary
2. secondary
3. Research Population
1. Sampling techniques
4. Method of data collection
5. Data Analysis techniques
6.Proposal writing

Thesis proposal and its

components
Proposal Writing
Research Proposal
o the presentation of an idea that you wish to pursue.
o a brief description of a research plan, which will be
conducted later.
 A research proposal is NOT a project to be thrown
together in one night with ideas off the top of your
head.
 The process of writing a research proposal
includes several stages
 Choice of research proposal topics
 Writing a Research Proposal Paper
 When writing your research proposal involves
filling out the following question;
Proposal Writing
• When writing your research proposal;
1. Your opening paragraph should contain answers to the following
questions:
• What do you propose in your paper?
• Is your project beneficial? Who will benefit and how?
• Who is going to be involved in your research?
• What is the duration of your project?
• What is the expected outcome of your research?
2. do not forget that your body paragraph is based on certain questions
too:
• Why should your proposal be supported?
• What evidence do you have to prove that this project is a worthwhile one?
• What are your main arguments and supporting facts?
3. when you are going to write the last part of your research proposal,
base it on the following points:
• What is the significance of your study for the society, science, and other
fields?
• Will you continue writing your research proposal, deepening its focus?
Proposal Writing
Structure of the Research
 METHODOLOGY
Proposal
 INTRODUCTION a. Description of the Study
a. Background of the Study
Area and Study Population
b. Statement of the Problem b. Study Design and Study
c. Hypotheses (if needed)
Procedure
d. Objectives of the Study i. Research Design
e. The Research Questions ii. Type and source of data
f. Significance of the Study iii. Sampling Design
g. Scope and Limitations of the Study iv. Data Collection methods
h. Definition of Terms v. Data analysis tool
 LITERATURE REVIEW
vi. Data presentation
a. Introduction
 Work plan and schedule
b. Presentation of the Review
c. Synthesis of the Review  Financial Requirements
d. Theoretical Framework of the  BIBLIOGRAPHY/ References
Study
e. Conceptual Framework of the  APPENDICES
Study
Ethical Issues in Research.

Research Ethics
How to Avoid Plagiarism
Research Ethics
rules and regulations set down by institution
 Other rules which all researchers, whatever their
subject, must follow rules of ethics and morality
 ethics and morals ;
• Morals - generally refer to an unwritten set of
values that provide a frame of reference that we
use to help our decision making and regulate our
behavior
• Ethics - generally refer to a written code of value
principles that we use in a particular context
 Research ethics are principles that we use to
make decisions about what is acceptable practice
in any research project.
Research Ethics
Why Do We Need Ethical Codes?
 Research participants have moral and legal
rights
 researchers do not violate these rights
 A code of research ethics is required to ensure
that there are agreed standards of acceptable
behavior for researchers, which protect
participants’ moral and legal rights.
ensure that there is good scientific practice in
research.
It is essential that the public should be able to
trust the results of research programs as
Research Ethics
Models for Research Ethics
1. The Value-Free Model. The idea here is that rigorous
research will yield results that can be used for anyone’s
benefit, for good or evil, for better or worse, and that in
the long run, good will win out over evil if researchers
adhere to methodological rigor and consistency.
2. Social Problems Model. Research is problem solving,
all about understanding the world we live in a little better
so that we can modify it toward some greater good.
3. Marxist Model. There are three kinds of research:
trivial; that which aids the bourgeoisie (or haves); and
Marxist research which aids the proletariat (the have-
nots).
Research Ethics
Models for Research Ethics
4. Vulnerable Population Model. Research ought to be
used to uplift or empower those social groups who lack
power in society, especially by qualitative research which
gives them a ‘voice.’
5. Government Pawn Model. Research ought to be of use
to government decision makers so that better public policy
can be made.
6. Corporate Shill Model. Research should be used to
promote the interests of wealthy, powerful individuals or
corporations with researchers for sale in ‘think tanks.’
7. Self-Imposed Morality Model. The researcher simply
refuses to cave in to any pressures or ideology.
Research Ethics
Ethical Issues in Research.
Selltiz (1976) grouped into ten categories the
questionable practices involving research
participants.
 Involving people in research without their
knowledge or consent.
 Coercing people to participate.
 Withholding from the participants the true
nature of research.
 Deceiving the research participants.
Research Ethics
Ethical Issues in Research.
Selltiz (1976) grouped into ten categories the questionable
practices involving research participants.
 Leading the research participants to commit acts
which diminish their self-respect.
 Violating the right to self-determination:
research on behavior control and character change.
 Exposing the research participants to physical or
mental stress.
 Invading the privacy of the research participants.
 Withholding benefits from participants in control
group.
 Failing to treat research participants fairly and
to show them consideration and respect.
Research Ethics
Basic Ethical Principles
 Respect for Individuals. It involves acknowledging
the autonomous of individuals and protecting those with
diminished autonomy.
• Anonymity
• Confidentiality.
• Informed Consent.
 Beneficence. The term beneficence refers to being
charitable or acting with kindness. In research, it is an
obligation to do no harm and to maximize any benefits
while minimizing possible harm. The issue of
beneficence relates to determining whether the benefits
outweigh the risks for the participants of the study. To
minimize harm, we must identify the risks of the
research on human participants.
Research Ethics
Basic Ethical Principles
 Justice. The principle of justice finds its application in the
moral requirement that fair procedures and outcomes be used
in the selection of research subjects. Justice is the fairness of
distribution of benefits and risks among all individuals. This
principle can be formulated in four ways: to each person an
equal share, to each person according to individual need, to
each person according to individual effort and to each person
according to merit.
 Laundering data. It is a way of statistically manipulating the
data collected to reduce errors and make the findings more
accurate. One way one can achieve this is by removing the
abnormal responses from the data.
 Faking data. It is making up desired data or eliminating
undesired data in research findings. One example of faking
data would be to duplicate or multiply the answers ten times
and now have fifty responses.
How to Avoid Plagiarism?
 Plagiarism
• plagiarism means taking credit for work that is
not one’s own, either in whole or in part.
• Providing proper citations is more than a matter
of ethical integrity in research – it is a form of
courtesy shown to other authors and researchers.
 Cheating
• means trying to gain an unfair advantage over
fellow students or attempting to deceive your
adviser in coursework or during examinations.
• when a student presents data which he claims
was the result of a piece of research but was
actually invented or taken from somewhere else.
How to Avoid Plagiarism?
 Plagiarism
Plagiarism occurs when someone tries to pass off another’s work,
thoughts or ideas as their own, whether deliberately or unintentionally,
without appropriate acknowledgment. Plagiarism can be:

1) Partial – where it relates to poor paraphrasing or the inclusion of several

sentences of another’s work without appropriate acknowledgment.

2) Complete – the substantial and unauthorized use of the work or ideas of

another person without acknowledgment of the source, including work
bought from another person.

3) Self-plagiarism/duplication – copying work that was original, complete and

submitted by the student and is again resubmitted for another purpose
without acknowledgment.

4) Collusion – where a student produces work with others without

acknowledgment.
How to Avoid Plagiarism?
How to Avoid Plagiarism.
 When you are reading, get into the habit of noting down
the exact source of what you have read. You need to
include details of the following:
 author
 article or journal title
 book title
 page number
 publisher
 year of publication
 Keeping these detailed notes will save you a lot of time
when it comes to preparing your bibliography and
footnotes. In the bibliography, there is an accepted
format for presenting those references. Most institutions
have their own institutional format standards.
How to Avoid Plagiarism?
How to Avoid Plagiarism

YOU MUST ENSURE THAT YOU

ACKNOWLEDGE THE IDEAS AND WORK

OF OTHERS WHEN SUBMITTING

COURSEWORK.
7. Research Report writing

Research Result and Reporting

Research Reporting
Research papers usually have five chapters
with well-established sections in each chapter.
Readers of the paper will be looking for these
chapters and sections so you should not
deviate from the standard format unless you
are specifically requested to do so by your
instructor.
The most commonly used style for writing
research reports is called "APA" and the rules
are described in the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association.
Research Reporting
Any library or bookstore will have it
readily available.
The style guide contains hundreds of
rules for grammar, layout, and syntax.
Avoid the use of first person pronouns.
o Refer to yourself or the research team in
third person. Instead of saying "I will ..." or
"We will ...",
o say something like "The researcher will ..."
or "The research team will ...".
Research Reporting
Result
Discussion
Conclusion
Recommendation
References list