Chapter - 1

Basic concepts of thermodynamics

Learning objectives
• By the end of this chapter you will be able to:
• State the meaning and application areas of thermodynamics.
• Define a thermodynamic system.
• Identify an open and a closed system.
• Explain thermodynamic properties.
• Distinguish intensive and extensive properties.
• Define state, equilibrium, process and cycle.
• Describe quasi-static and steady flow processes.
• Explain the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
• Discuss the measurement of temperature and pressure.
Introduction
• Thermodynamics is a branch of physics and Engineering science. It
can be simply defined as a science of energy.
• The name “thermodynamics” stems from two Greek words, “therme”
which means heat and “Dynamis”, meaning power. Which is quite
descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat in to power.
• Today the same name encompasses the study of energy and energy
transformations (in power cycles and refrigeration cycles), and
relationship among properties of matter.
• There are two approaches to study thermodynamics namely
macroscopic and microscopic approach respectively.
Introduction
• Macroscopic approach / Classical thermodynamics
• Concerned primarily with the macrostructure of matter. It addresses the gross
characteristics of a large aggregations of molecules and not the behavior of
individual molecules.
• Microscopic approach / Statistical thermodynamics
• It’s a more elaborate approach based on the average behavior of large groups of
individual particles. The microstructure of matter is studied in kinetic theory and
statistical mechanics including quantum thermodynamics.
• Scientists are interested in gaining fundamental understanding of the physical and chemical behavior of
fixed, quiescent quantity of matter and uses the principle of thermodynamics to relate properties of
matter.
• Engineers are generally interested in studying systems and how the systems interact with their
surroundings.
Introduction
• When thermodynamics is applied to design and analysis of various
energy conversion systems its called Engineering thermodynamics.
• Thermodynamics is a core to engineering and allows understanding of
the mechanisms of energy conversion.
• In thermodynamics there are few fundamental laws and principles
applied to a wide range of problems.
• Thermodynamics is applied anywhere there is energy interaction and
it is a science having its relevance in every walk of life.
Key terms in thermodynamics
• Every science has a unique vocabulary associated with it and
thermodynamics is no exception.
• Understanding the precise definition and concepts are vey important
step to grasp the full meaning and avoid misunderstanding.
• In this section we will see some key terms in thermodynamics.
Thermodynamic system
• In thermodynamic analysis, the system is the subject of the
investigation.
• It can be defined as “ a specified quantity of matter or a precisely
selected region in space that can be separated from everything else
by a well defined surface.”
• The defining surface is known as a control surface or system
boundary. It can be movable or fixed; real or imaginary.
• Everything outside the boundary is called surroundings.
• Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on
whether a fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study.
Thermodynamic system
• Closed system / control mass system
• It’s a system of fixed mass where no mass can cross the system boundary.
• Energy may cross in forms of heat or work.
• A special form of closed system where there is no
energy interaction is called Isolated system.
• The volume of the closed system does not have to
be fixed.
Thermodynamic system
• Open system / control volume
• is a properly selected region in space. It usually
encloses a device that involves mass flow.
• Flow through these devices is best studied by
selecting the region within the device as the
control volume.
• Both mass and energy can cross the boundary
of a control volume.
• Examples ; turbines, nozzles, compressors …
• The boundary of open system is often called
control surface.
Properties of a system
• For defining any system certain parameters are needed. ‘Properties’
are those observable characteristics of the system which can be used
for defining it.
• Some examples of properties are temperature, pressure, volume,
mass, density … etc
• Properties are defined at a given state and some of them can be
measured directly and some of them are obtained indirectly.
• Properties are classified as intensive and extensive.
Properties of a system
• Intensive properties
• are properties which are independent on the mass of a system.
• pressure and temperature are examples of intensive properties.
• They are denoted my lowercase letters except temperature and pressure.
• Extensive Properties
• are properties whose value depends on the mass of a system.
• Total mass, total volume and total energy are examples of extensive properties.
• They are denoted by uppercase letters except mass.
• Specific properties
• they are intensive properties derived from extensive properties by dividing
them by the total mass of a system.
• Specific volume and specific energy are examples of specific properties.
Properties of a system
• How to differentiate intensive and extensive
properties.
• Assume a system with certain properties
• Divide the system in two equal parts by imaginary surface
• If the property of the resulting two systems have the same
value with the original one then that property is Intensive.
• But if its value is half of that of the original, then that
property is Extensive.

Show the specific properties are intensive.

State and Equilibrium
• State is a condition of a system when a system is not undergoing any
change and all properties can assume certain value.
• Even if a single property value changes, the state will change to
different one.
• Thermodynamics deals with the state of Equilibrium.
• Equilibrium is a state of balance, i.e. there is no unbalanced potential
(driving forces) within the system.
• If a system is in state of equilibrium, its properties remain unchanged
when the system is isolated from its surroundings.
State and Equilibrium
• There are different types of Equilibriums such as;
• Thermal equilibrium : no temperature differential within the system,
therefore no potential for heat flow.
• If a system is not in thermal equilibrium,
i.e. if its temperature is not balanced
throughout the system and if the system
is isolated, after some time the system
will assume some average uniform
temperature and become in thermal
equilibrium
State and Equilibrium
• Mechanical Equilibrium : a system is in mechanical equilibrium if there is no
change in pressure at any point of the system with time.
• However, the pressure may vary within the system with elevation as a result
of gravitational effects.
• In most thermodynamics problems the variation of pressure due to elevation
Is negligible and often disregarded.
• Phase Equilibrium : if a system has two phases, it is in phase equilibrium
when the mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium level and stays there.
• Chemical Equilibrium : a system is in chemical equilibrium if its chemical
composition does not change with time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.
• When all the above Equilibrium condition are satisfied; then we say the
system is in thermodynamic Equilibrium
The state postulate
• To describe a state we don’t need to specify all properties. specifying
a certain number of properties is sufficient to fix a state.
• The number of properties required to fix the state of a system is given
by the state postulate:

• The state of a simple compressible system is completely

specified by two independent, intensive properties.
The state postulate
• A simple compressible system is a system with no external effects
such as electrical, magnetic, gravitational, motion and surface
tension.
• These effects are negligible for most engineering problems.
• Otherwise, an additional property needs to be specified for each
effect that is significant. If the gravitational effects are to be
considered, for example, the elevation z needs to be specified in
addition to the two properties necessary to fix the state.
• Two properties are independent if one property can be varied while
the other one is held constant.
The state postulate
• Temperature and specific volume, for example, are always
independent properties, and together they can fix the state of a
simple compressible system.
• Temperature and pressure, however, are independent properties for
single-phase systems, but are dependent properties for multiphase
systems. At sea level (P = 1 atm), water boils at 100°C, but on a
mountaintop where the pressure is lower, water boils at a lower
temperature.
Process and cycle
• Process is any change a system undergo from one initial equilibrium
state into another final state.
• The series of intermediate equilibrium states through which the
process pass is called path of a process.
• A process is fully described by the three:
• The two end (initial and final) states.
• The process path and,
• The system – surroundings interaction.
• A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial
state at the end of the process.
• That is, for a cycle the initial and final states are identical.
Quasi-static / Quasi-equilibrium
process
• It’s a process that proceed in a manner during the process the system
remains close to equilibrium state throughout the process.
• A slow compression of a gas in a piston-cylinder device is a good
example.

• Slow process allows the system to adjust

itself internally so that properties in one
part of the system do not change any
faster than those at other parts.
Quasi-static / Quasi-equilibrium
process
• Quasi-static processes are ideal processes. But many actual processes
closely approximate it, and they can be modeled as quasi-equilibrium
with negligible error.
• Why are we interested in quasi-static processes?
1. They are easy for analysis.
2. When devices operate under quasi-static devices they give maximum
output. [quasi-equilibrium processes serve as standards to which actual
processes can be compared.]
Process diagrams
• Process diagrams are used for visualizing a process.
• They are plotted employing thermodynamic properties as
coordinates.
• The most common properties used as coordinates are pressure P,
temperature T and volume V or specific volume v.
• In a process diagram the process path indicates a series of equilibrium
states.
• For non quasi-equilibrium process the process path is indicated by a
dashed line.
Process diagrams
• The diagram indicates a compression
process of a gas in a piston cylinder device
from initial state 1 to final state 2.
• The process diagram is called a P-V
diagram, since pressure and volume are
used as Y and X coordinates respectively.
• From the diagram we know that the
compression process is quasi-static
because the process path is solid line.
Side note
• The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which a
particular property remains constant.
• Isothermal process: a process during which temperature remains constant
• Isobaric process: a process during which pressure is constant
• Isochoric / isometric: a process during which specific volume is constant
• Isentropic : a process during which entropy is constant
Steady flow process
• The term steady implies no change with time. The opposite of steady
is unsteady, or transient.
• The term uniform, however, implies no change with location over a
specified region.
• A large number of engineering devices operate for long periods of
time under the same conditions, and they are classified as steady-flow
devices.
• The processes in such devices is well represented by an idealized
process called steady flow process which is defined as a process
during which a fluid flows through a control volume steadily.
Steady flow process
• In steady flow process the properties may
change from point to point within the control
volume, but at a fixed point the property
remain constant during the entire process.
• The volume V the mass m and the total
energy E of the control volume remains
constant during steady flow process.
• Examples of steady flow devices are;
turbines, pumps, boilers, condensers,
diffusers, compressors, heat exchangers, etc…
The Zeroth law
• We know temperature as a measure of hotness or coldness. Based on
our physiological sensation we express the level of temperature
qualitatively as freezing cold, cold, warm, hot and red hot.
• Our senses can be misleading; we may feel metallic object colder that
wooden object even if they have the same temperature.
• There are several properties of materials that change with
temperature repeatably and predictably, which form the basis for
accurate temperature measurement.
• The most common mercury in glass thermometer uses the expansion
of mercury with temperature to measure temperature.
The Zeroth law
• When two bodies at different temperature are in contact, heat will be
transferred from higher to lower temperature body.
• The heat transfer takes place until both bodies attain the same
temperature and stopes.
• When the two bodies attain the same temperature its said they are in
thermal equilibrium.
• At thermal equilibrium there will be no heat transfer. The equality of
temperature is the only requirement for thermal equilibrium.
The Zeroth law
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in
thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
• By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can
be restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the
same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.
• It was named the zeroth law since it should have preceded the first
and the second laws of thermodynamics.
Temperature scale
• Temperature scales enable us to use a common basis for temperature
measurements.
• The two Point scales:
• are based on some easily reproducible states such as the freezing and boiling
points also called the ice point and steam point of water.
• The temperature scale used in SI system is the Celsius scale which has ice
point and steam point of and respectively.
• In English system Fahrenheit scale which has ice point and steam point of and
respectively is used.
Temperature scale
• Thermodynamic temperature scale:
• Developed in conjunction with the second law of thermodynamics; not based
on properties of any substance.
• In SI system Kelvin scale is used which has the lowest value of .
• In English system Rankin scale is used and has the lowest value of .
• Ideal gas temperature scale:
• Nearly identical to Kelvin scale
• Constant volume gas thermometers are used for measurement.
• based on the principle that at low pressures, the temperature of a gas is
proportional to its pressure at constant volume.
𝑇 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑃 Where: T is temperature, P is pressure
constants a and b are experimentally determines
Temperature scale
• Temperature scale conversion

𝑇 ( 𝐾 )=𝑇 (° 𝐶)+273.15 T ( R ) = T (° F ) + 459.67

T (° F ) = 1.8 T (°C ) + 32
𝛥 𝑇 ( 𝐾 )= 𝛥 𝑇 (° 𝐶) 𝛥 𝑇 ( 𝑅)= 𝛥𝑇 (° 𝐹 )
Temperature scale
• Example:
Humans are most comfortable when
the temperature is between 65°F
and 75°F.
Express these temperature limits in
°C. Convert the size of this
temperature range
(10°F) to K, °C, and R. Is there any
difference in the size of this range as
measured in relative or absolute
units?
Pressure
• Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.
• It’s a scalar quantity and it has the unit of newtons per square meter
(), which is called Pascal.
• Three pressure units commonly used in practice, especially in Europe,
are bar, standard atmosphere, and kilogram-force per square
centimeter.
Pressure
• absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position, measured
relative to absolute vacuum.
• gage pressure: the difference between the absolute pressure and the
local atmospheric pressure.
• vacuum pressure: pressures below atmospheric pressure, measured
by vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the
atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure.
Pressure
Variation of pressure with depth
∑ 𝐹 𝑍=𝑚𝑎𝑍=0
𝑃 1 ∆ 𝑥∆ 𝑦− 𝑃 2 ∆ 𝑥 ∆ 𝑦 − 𝜌 𝑔 ∆ 𝑥∆ 𝑦 ∆ 𝑧=0

Noting the negative sign, pressure in a static

Free-body diagram of a rectangular fluid increases linearly with depth.
fluid element in equilibrium
Variation of pressure with depth

Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape or cross section of the

container. It changes with the vertical distance but remains constant in other
directions.
Pascal’s law

The area ratio A2 /A1 is called the ideal

mechanical advantage of hydraulic lift

Using a hydraulic car jack with a piston

area ratio of A2 /A1 = 100, for example, a
person can lift a 1000-kg car by applying
a force of just 10 kgf (= 90.8 N).
Pressure measurement devices
• The Barometer:
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer.
The pressure at point B is equal to the atmospheric
pressure, and the pressure at point C can be taken
to be zero since there is only mercury vapor above
point C.
Writing a force balance in vertical direction

A frequently used pressure unit is the standard

atmosphere, which is defined as the pressure produced
by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C (ρHg =
13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration
(g = 9.807 m/s2).
Pressure measurement devices
• The Manometer:
• it is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences.
• A manometer consists of a glass or plastic U-tube containing one or more
fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.

The differential fluid column of height h is in static

equilibrium, and it is open to the atmosphere.
Then the pressure at point 2 is determined by

where ρ is the density of the manometer fluid in the tube.

Pressure measurement devices
• Manometers are particularly well-suited to measure pressure drops across a
horizontal flow section between two specified points.

A relation for the pressure difference

P1 − P2 can be obtained by

𝑃 1 + 𝜌 1 ( 𝑎+ h ) − 𝜌 2 h − 𝜌 1 𝑎= 𝑃 2
 End of chapter
Read about other pressure measurement devices