 Covered in this chapter

 Encoding and Signaling

 Modulation and Multiplexing
 Cabling
 The Effectiveness of Communication depends on Four major X-
stics.

 The Effectiveness of Communication depends on Four major

X-stics.
Delivery
Accuracy
Timeliness
Jitter
OSI Model
The model is called the ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)

Reference
Model → it deals with connecting open systems.

It is a conceptual framework.

Composed of Layers
 A layer created with a different abstraction is needed.

 Each layRoyalBluebColorer should performa well-defined function.

 The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining

internationally standardized protocols.

 The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow

 across the interfaces.

Physical Layer!
Deals with the physical characteristics of the transmission medium.
Physical layer concerns:
Physical charactersics of interfaces and medium

→ defines the interface between devices and the medium

Representation of bits/ Encoding

→ Encoding the data into signals forms

Data Rate

→ the number of bit kicked per given time (usually in sec)

Physical Layer!
Deals with the physical characteristics of the transmission medium.
Physical layer concerns:
Synchronization of bits

→ The senders and receivers clock must be synchronized

 physical Topology

→ indicate how the devices connected to form a network ?

 Transmission Mode

→ defines direction of transmission between Hosts

⇓
is Simplex, half-duplex or Full-duplex?
 Information stored within systems and transferred over network
Data
Conveys meaning within a computing system
defined interms of Analog and Digital
Signals
oAre electric or electromagnetic impulses used to encode & transmit data.
oAnalog and Digital
What both defines ? '→ ”Nature of the data”
↓
•The terms analog and digital correspond, roughly, to continuous and discrete,
respectively
Signals: are electric or electromagnetic encoding of data.
Signaling: is the act of propagating the signal along a suitable medium
Transmission; is the communication of data by the propagation and processing of
signal
Analog Signlas
Represented in continious wave form.
has infinitely many level of intensity over period of time
t.
May be periodic or non-periodic
Analog Signlas
defined by three X-characterstics:
o Amplitude : the maximum or minimium values of the signals
o Wavelength : distnance b/en two conscuative max or min values
o Frequency : the number of times a signal makes a complete cycle
within a given time frame.
'→ Periods: the amount of time in second, a signals needs to
complete 1 cycle.
Phase :the position of the waveform relative to the time 0;
 Bandwidth: is the ranges of frequencies contained in composite
signal
Mathimatically :
→ B = Max Frequency - Min Frequency
 Digital Signals
Represented by discrete values
'→ 1 for +ve voltage and 0 for -ve voltage
May have more than one level.
 Bit Rate is the number of bits sent in single second.
Mathimatically : BR = number of bit / sec
Find BR of the channel required to download PDF file with 1000 page internet
?
 Bit-Length
Analogus to wavelength
refers the distance that single cycle occupies on the transmission medium
Mathematically :
'→ Bit-length(BL) = Propagation speed * Bit duration
 Transmission Impairments
Does signal perfect as they move away from the source ? NOP!
⇓
which is not perfect → Transmission Impairments!
Three Transmission imparments in communication.
Figure 1: Category of tranmission medium
1. Attenuation '→ loss of energy! why
⇓
as result of trying to overcome the resistance of the
medium

Amplifier : essentially employed to amplify the signal

Transmission Imapirment ...
decibel is used to measure the lost or gained energy
Decibel : measure of the relative strength of the two signal or
single signal @ different point.
Mathimatically :
dB = 10log10 p2/p1 where p2 and p1 are signal values
2 Distortion :
Signals change their form or shape
Can occur in composite signal made by different signals.

'→

Figure 2: Original Signal @ sender Figure 3: Distorted Signal @ receiver

3 Noise
Unwanted signal which interferes with the original message signal and
corrupts the parameters of the message signal.
Noises might be
 Thermal noise:
as a result of random motion of electron.
 Induced noise :
noise which comes from other devices.
 Crosstalk:
The effect of one wire on another
 Impulse noise :
is spike
are signals with high energy in short time.
Interference, delay and Bit Error Rate (BER)
 The basis for analog signaling is a continuous, constant-
frequency signal known as the carrier signal
 Modulation is the process of encoding source data onto a
carrier signal with,
o Amplitude
o Frequency
o Phase
 The input signal m(t) may be analog or digital and is called
the modulating signal, or baseband signal.
 The result of modulating the carrier signal is called the
modulated signal s(t).
Figure 4: Encoding onto a digital signal and Modulation onto an analog signal
respectively
 Encoding is the process of converting the data (i.e. characters, symbols,
alphabets etc.,) into a specified format
Decoding is extracting the information from the converted format.
There are 4 Possible encoding Schemes

DIGITAL DATA to DIGITAL SIGNAL

A digital signal is a sequence of discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses.
Thus, This pulses are signal elements
Binary data are transmitted by encoding each data bit into signal elements
0 represent low-voltage and 1 represent high-voltage
The data signaling rate (data rate), of a signal is the rate that data are transmitted per
second
⇓ measured ”bit per seconds(bps)”
 Line coding: is the process of converting digital data to digital signals
o If the signal elements all have the same algebraic sign, that is, all
positive or negative, then the signal is unipolar.
o The duration or length of a bit is the amount of time it takes for the
transmitter to emit the bit.
⇓
For data Rate R, the bit duration is 1/R
o The modulation rate is expressed in bauds rate
⇓
The number of signal elements per second
o Encoding Techniqes
Nonreturn to Zero (NRZ) '→ NRZ-Level and NRZ-Inverted
Multilevel Binary
Line coding schemes into five categories:
Unipolar: In this scheme, all the signal levels are either above or

below the axis.

NRZ scheme
Polar : the voltages are on the both sides of the axis

NRZ-L, NRZ-I, RZ, and Biphase – Manchester and differential

Manchester
Bipolar : there are three voltage levels positive, negative, & zero

Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) AMI and Pseudoternary

 Multilevel

 Multitransition
NonReturn to Zero (NRZ)
NRZ Codes has 1 for High voltage level and 0 for Low voltage level
Rule: voltage level remains constant during bit interval

Figure 5: NonReturn to Zero (NRZ)

Non Return to Zero Inverted (NRZ-I)
Change or lack of change in the voltage level
determines the value of a bit.
For bit 1, there will be a change in the voltage level,
and
For bit 0, there won’t be any change in the voltage
level
Non Return to Zero Inverted (NRZ-I) ...
0 = no transition at beginning of interval (one bit time)
1 = transition at beginning of interval
Assume the binary Data 10110110

Figure 6: Non-Return-to-Zero Inverted digital encoding

Bipolar-AMI
defines three voltage methods ‹→ +ve , -ve and Zero
Zero levels define binary 0, and binary 1 is described by rotating
positive and negative voltages.
Rules :
0 = no line signal
1 = positive or negative level, alternating for successive ones
Bipolar-AMI

Figure 7: Bipolar-Alternate Mark Inversion

Pseudoternary
Opposite of AMI scheme
0 = positive or negative level, alternating for
successive zeros
1 = no line signal
Pseudoternary

Figure 8: Pseudoternary encoding

Manchester and Differnetial Manchester

Encoding ...
⇓
Read thouroughly .....
DIGITAL MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

The process of converting between bits and signals that represent

them is called digital modulation
Digital modulation is broadly divided into two categories
Bandpass Modulation as in baseband transmission
⇓
is digital transmission use a positive voltage to represent a 1 and a
negative voltage to represent a 0
Passband Modulation as in passband transmission:
⇓
Here, the amplitude, phase or frequency of the carrier signal is
regulated to transmit the bit
Digital Data to Analog Signal
The case of transmitting digital data using analog signals ‹→ Analog
Transmission
Transmitting digital data through the public telephone network.
Digital devices are attached to the network via a MODEM
Modulation involves operation on one or more of the three characteristics
of a carrier signal
Three basic encoding / modulation techniques for transforming digital data
into analog signals,
1.Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
2.Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
3.Phase-shift keying (PSK)
 Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
o is a type of Amplitude Modulation which represents the binary data in the form of variations in the
amplitude of a signal.
o How to represent:
 One binary digit represented by presence of carrier, at constant amplitude
 Other binary digit represented by absence of carrier
Mathematically :

c
Acos(2Πf t) is the carrier signal!
The ASK technique is used to transmit digital data over optical fiber
 Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
The two binary values are represented by two different frequencies near
the carrier frequency.
Properties of FSK
Less susceptible to error than ASK
Used for high-frequency (3 to 30 MHz) radio transmission
Can be used at higher frequencies on LANs that use coaxial cable
Amplitude of the carrier wave is constant
Phase-shift keying (PSK)
The phase of the carrier signal is shifted to represent data

 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)

o is a form of Phase Shift Keying in which two bits are modulated at once,
selecting one of four possible carrier phase shifts
 QPSK is used for satellite transmission of
o MPEG2 video,
o Cable modems,
o Videoconferencing
o Cellular phone systems, and other forms of digital communication over an RF
carrier
 Analog Data to Digital Signal
The process of transforming analog data into digital signals ‹→ Digitization
Once Analog data ⇓ Digital Signal, the ff states occur:
o Can be transmitted using NRZ-L.
o Can be encoded as a digital signal using a code other than NRZ-L
o Can be converted into an analog signal, using one of the modulation
techniques
 Two techniqes:
Pulse code modulation (PCM)
Delta modulation (DM)
 Pulse code modulation (PCM)
Is a digital scheme for transmitting analog data which converts an analog signal into
digital form
Possible to digitize any analog datas, (full-motion, video, Voice, Music ... ) How ?
⇓
Analog signal is sampled at regular time intervals '→ Sampling Theorem
Pulse code modulations are of two types:
1. Differential pulse code modulation (DPCM)
2. Adaptive differential pulse code modulation (ADPCM)
PCM has the ff process:
1. Sampling
2. Quantisation
3. Coding
Delta modulation (DM)
Designed to enhance the performance and diminish the complexity of PCM .
 In delta Modulation, Analog input is approximated by staircase function
o Moves up or down by one quantization level at each sampling interval
o The bit stream approximates derivative of analog signal (rather than
amplitude)
1 is generated if function goes up
otherwise
Analog Data to Analog Signal
Modulation
⇓
is process of combining an input signal m(t) and a carrier at frequency f, to
produce a signal s(t)
The principal techniques for modulation using analog data:
1. Amplitude modulation (AM)
2. Frequency modulation (FM)
3. Phase modulation (PM)
 Amplitude modulation (AM)
Amplitude modulation is a process by which the wave signal is transmitted by modulating
the amplitude of the signal.
Commonly used in transmitting a piece of information through a radio carrier wave.
Amplitude modulation is mostly used in the form of electronic communication.

Where:
c
cos(2Πf t) is the carrier signal
x(t) is the input signal (carrying data)
The parameter na known as the modulation index

There are three main types of amplitude modulation. They are;

Double sideband-suppressed carrier modulation (DSB-SC)
Single Sideband Modulation (SSB).
Vestigial Sideband Modulation (VSB)
Figure 9: Sinusoidal modulating wave and Resulting AM signal
Frequency modulation (FM)
”is a modulation in which the frequency of the carrier wave is altered in accordance with
the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, keeping phase and amplitude
constant”.
Y(t) = A(t) * sin(2Πf c + ϕ(t))

Two most Common Application of FM:

FM Radio Broadcasting
Two-way Communication

⋆ What about Phase Modulation(PM) and Angel Modulation (FM + PM) ? read it
....
Multiplexing
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission
of multiple signals across a single data link.
In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link.
when to use such techniqe?
⇓
Bmedium > Bdevices

Three type of Multiplexing:

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
It is an analog technology
When the carrier is frequency ,FDM is used.
Each communications channel is assigned a carrier frequency
To separate the channels, a guard-band would be used.
FDM can be used in both wired and wireless networking for transmitting
large amounts of data at high speeds

Figure 10: Frequency division Multiplexing

'→ Any Application of FDM? ⇒ Ofcourse!

AM and FM radio broadcasting

Television broadcasting
The first generation of cellular telephones

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

is a technique where a short time sample of each channel is inserted into the
multiplexed data stream.
 Two kind of TDM
o Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
The input frame already has a slot in the output frame.
Time slots are grouped into frames. One frame consists of one cycle of time
slots.
not efficient
↓
because if the input frame has no data to send, a slot remains empty in the output
frame.
o Statistical (or Asynchronous) Time Division Multiplexing
the output frame collects data from the input frame till it is full, not leaving
an empty slot like in Synchronous TDM.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
is used to optimally utilize optical-fiber cable
In essence, the same
↓
Frequency Division Multiplexing(FDM)
The purpose of the physical layer is to transport bits from one machine to another via
'→ Transmission medium
Media are roughly grouped into:
Guided media
Unguided Media
In both cases, communication is in the form of electromagnetic waves.
With guided media, the waves are guided along a solid medium but not the unguided.
Each one has its own niche in terms of bandwidth, delay, cost, and ease of installation
and maintenance.
Coaxial Cable
the most common type of cables
It has better shielding and greater bandwidth than unshielded twisted pairs
Two kinds of coaxial cable are widely used
50-ohm cable '→ is commonly used when it is intended for digital transmission from
the start.
75-ohm cable '→ is commonly used for analog transmission and cable television.
A coaxial cable consists
Stiff copper wire as the core
The insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor
Braided Meshed wire
The outer conductor is covered in a protective plastic sheath
 Two type of Coxial Cable:
1.Thin (THIN-NET) cable
ThinNet is used on Ethernet 10Base2 networks and can span distances of up to 185 meters
Because this type of coaxial cable is flexible and easy to work with
it can be used in almost any type of network installation.
In ThinNet networks, computers connect to the network via a BNC-T connector attached to
the network card.
2.Thick (THICK-NET) cable
is a relatively rigid coaxial cable about 1.27 centimeters (0.5 inches) in diameter.
is used with Ethernet 10Base5 networks and is able to span distances of up to 500 meters.
Originally used to directly connect computers, but
⇓
It eventually became popular in backbone implementations between LANs.
Application of Coaxial Cable
Television distribution (such as Ariel to TV, Cable TV)
Long distance telephone transmission → Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously
Short distance computer systems links
Local area networks
Twisted Pairs
The of the oldest and still most common transmission media.
Consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation,
twisted together.
One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only
as a ground reference.
The number of twists per unit of length has some effect on the quality of the cable.

Figure 11: Twisted Cables

Twisted Pairs ...
Why cable is twisted? ⇒ Because
If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same
in both wires because they are at different locations relatives to the noise or
crosstalk sources.
This results in a difference at the receiver. → a balance maintained
Can be used for transmitting either analog or digital information
A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires, typically about 1 mm
thick.
The wires are twisted together in a helical form, just like a DNA molecule.
The bandwidth depends on the thickness of the wire and the distance traveled.
Comes with 2 different Flavor:
oUnshielded twisted-pair (UTP)
oShielded twisted-pair (STP)
1. Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)
This is the most commonly used medium today, because of its usage in the
telephone system
This cable can carry both voice as well as data.
It consists of two conductors, the wires used to be kept parallel.
The modern are twisted together
The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has developed standards to classify
unshielded twisted-pair cable into eight categories.
Categories are determined by cable quality, with 1 as the lowest and 7 as the
highest.
Each EIA category is suitable for specific uses
CAT-1 to CAT-8
2 Shielded twisted-pair (STP)
Apart from the insulator, the twisted wire pair itself is covered by metal-
shield and plastic cover
The metal shield prevents penetration of electromagnetic noise.
It also helps eliminate crosstalk,
What connectors used ?
cable connectors
The most common UTP connector is RJ45.
The RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be inserted in only one way.
Based on RJ Connectors :
A straight-through cable has T568B on both ends.
A crossover (or cross-connect) cable has T568B on one end and T568A on the other.
A console cable had T568B on one end and reverse T568B on the other, which is why it is
also called a rollover cable.

Figure 12:
Figure 13: RJ- Figure 14: T568A and T568B respectively
RJ-Female
male
Optic Fiber
Fiber optic cables are similar to coax, except without the braid.
At the center is the glass core through which the light propagates.
They’re designed for long-distance, high-performance data networking, &
telecommunications
A fiber optic cable consists of one or more strands of glass,
The Core: which provides the pathway for light to travel
The Cladding:
Used to surround the core glass &
Reflects light inward to avoid loss of signal and allow the light to pass through bends in
the cable.
Jacket : protective layers of acrylic plastic coating, Kevlar fibers for additional strength,
and a PVC (polyvinyl chloride) jacket (usually colored a distinctive orange).
Fiber Optic ....
Has 2 flavours
Single-mode Fiber
Single-mode fiber uses extremely thin glass strands and
A laser diodes to convert electrical signals into light pulses for transmission
on fiber-optic cables
Wave Division Multiplexing techniques to increase the amount of data
traffic that the strand can carry.
Multi-Mode Fiber
multi-mode optical fiber cables use LEDs.

⋆ Read the advantage and Dis-advantage of the types of the cables.

⋆ Unguided Media

How does the mobile users communicate!

⇓
Wireless Communication system must be enabled!
Unguided media → used to transmit information in the form of waves.
signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways:
Ground propagation
Sky propagation
Line-of-sight propagation
Electromagnetic Waves created as a result of movement of small particles
X-stics of Emv:
1.Frequency : The number of oscillations per second of a wave
2.Wavelength:The distance between two consecutive maxima (or minima)
The ridumentary relation between this variable λ and frequency f
mathematically :
⇓
c = λ∗f
 Unguided Media...

Ground propagation
Radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging the earth.
Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal:
The greater the power, the greater the distance.
Sky Propagation
higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere (the layer of atmosphere
where particles exist as ions) where they are reflected back to earth.
This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower output power.
Unguided Media...
In line-of-sight propagation
very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from antenna to
antenna.
Antennas must be directional, facing each other, and either tall enough or close enough
together not to be affected by the curvature of the earth
The key is elemets are Electromagnetic Spectrum
⇓
”The Complete range of electromagnetic waves”
Depends on the bands they employ:
Radio Transmission
Infrared Transmission
Microwave Transmission
Light Transmission

Refer more about the mentioned transmissions ...