WAVES (One Dimensional)

Wave Motion, Wave Equation and Solution, and Wave Velocity

http://www.kettering.edu/~drussell/Demos/waves/wavemotion.html
 Put simply, “a wave is a traveling disturbance”.

Longitudinal wave
In longitudinal waves, the particles in a medium
oscillate back and forth about their equilibrium
positions but it is the disturbance which travels, not the
individual particles in the medium.

Transverse wave
In a transverse wave the particle displacement is perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation. The particles do not move along with the wave; they simply
oscillate up and down about their individual equilibrium positions as the
wave
passes by. http://www.kettering.edu/~drussell/Demos/waves-intro/waves-intro.html
 From Simple Harmonic Oscillation to Wave motion

Lets try to find a link from what we have learnt till now so as to
understand the phenomena of WAVES.

Coupled oscillations form the natural link between

simple harmonic motion (of a single particle) and wave
motion (of a continuous infinity of particles as in a
medium)
 From Simple Harmonic Oscillation to Wave

𝑥(𝑡) =
motion
 Oscillation of a single particle: One frequency ω 0

𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝜔ω𝑜0𝑡+𝜑)
 Oscillation of two coupled particles: Two normal frequencies , ω1

 Oscillation of n coupled particles: n normal frequencies ω0 , ω1…ωn-1

y
T
x
 Oscillation of infinite no. of coupled particles
(lattice/medium):
 From Simple Harmonic Oscillation to Wave
motion
Consider a Two-Mass, Three-Spring System
Longitudinal Motion (along x-axis):

+
𝑑2 1
�𝑥
𝑑𝑡 1 +𝑘(𝑥1−𝑥2) =
� 2𝑑2 𝑥 2 𝑘𝑥
System equations

𝑚 + 0
2 +𝑘(𝑥2−𝑥1) =
𝑘𝑥2
𝑑𝑡
0
�
𝜔=𝜔𝑜 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,�𝜔
3𝜔 𝑜 =
Normal frequencies
�
�
�
Extrapolate to Multiple mass system �
Each additional mass adds another natural mode of vibration per axis of
motion.
 From Simple Harmonic Oscillation to Wave
motion
a) Lets us extend the concept of oscillations of a coupled spring mass system to a
linear chain of springs and masses.

b) Also, let there be long linear chain of identical springs of stiffness k connecting the
identical blocks of mass m.

c) Suppose we consider the limit when the number of springs and masses tends
continuously to infinity.

d) This kind of limiting case can be envisaged in an elastic rod (which is a continuous
distribution of elasticity and inertia).

e) If longitudinal disturbances are created on such a rod, they propogate much as in a

linear chain of springs and masses, with the discrete system replaced
by a continuous system.
 Elastic Wave

Rod made of elastic substance A

L
Disturbance in the rod

©SB/SPK
 Elasticity : Spring constant
What happens to an elastic solid when it is compressed or
�
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 �
stretched?
=
Stress is the internal force per unit area, associated with a

�
strain.

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Strain is the relative change in shape or size of an object due to

=
� externally applied forces.

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒 �
𝑠𝑠 (𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′𝑠
𝑌 =𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠)
�

𝑖𝑛
𝑌
𝐹 𝐴 �
�
= �
𝐹 = 𝑘𝜉 →
�
(magnitude)
Elasticity : Spring constant

i
i-1
i+1

©SB/SPK
 Displacement 𝜉𝑖 of ith mass
Recall

Displacement 𝜉𝑖 of ith mass satisfies differential

𝑚 𝑑 𝜉 = −𝑘(𝜉𝑖 − 𝜉𝑖+1) − 𝑘(𝜉𝑖
2

− 𝑖𝜉𝑖−1)
equation
𝑑𝑡22
i d i
m 2  k( i1  i )  k( i 
i-1 i+1 dt
 Notation of partial derivatives
𝜉 is a function of two continuous variable x and t: 𝜉 =
𝜉(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜕𝜉(𝑥,𝑡)
𝜕
: variation of 𝜉(𝑥, 𝑡) with t while x is kept
𝑡
constant
𝜕𝜉(𝑥,𝑡)
𝜕𝑥
: variation of 𝜉(𝑥, 𝑡) with x while t is kept
constant
Let, a: separation between the masses

a  𝛿𝑥where 𝛿𝑥 → 0
𝜉𝑖 → 𝜉(𝑥,
𝑡)
In the Continuum limit

𝜉𝑖+1 → 𝜉(𝑥 +
𝛿𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜉𝑖−1 → 𝜉(𝑥 −
i
i-1 i+1
 Taylor series expansion

A Taylor series is a representation of a function as an infinite sum of terms that are calculated from the values
of
the function's derivatives at a single point.
d 2 i
m 2  k (i1  i )  k  i1 )
dt
𝜉𝑖 → 𝜉(𝑥,
( i
i1 (x, t)  i (x, t)   (x   x, t)   𝑡)
(x, t) 𝜉𝑖+1 → 𝜉(𝑥 +
 2 2 𝛿𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜉𝑖−1 → 𝜉(𝑥 −
  1
 ( x) → (1)
𝛿𝑥, 𝑡)
x
x 2 x2 and
Subtract: k[(1)
2 – (2)]
i (x, t)  i1 (x, t)   (x, t)   (x   x, 
2

m 2 k 2 2

 t) 2
 ( t
x) x
 ( x)   1
 ( x)
2
→ (2)
2
x 2 k 2 2

x t  m x 2 (  x)
 Longitudinal wave in elastic rod
YA Y : Young’s modulus
k A : Cross sectional area

 x   Mass density

m   A
x
We have: 2 k 2 ( x 2
2 
t )
m x2 2 Y 2 
t 2   x2
Wave equation:
𝑐𝑠
2  1 2  �

=
cs: wave velocity
x2  c s2 t 2
�
�
Transverse vibrations in strings
 Loaded string case

m
1 2
a yr - r+1
yr - yr-1 a y
m
m
yr

yr-1 yr+1
 Loaded string case

m
n=1
a A1 a
A0 = 0 A2 = 0

m a m
n=2
a
A1 A2 a
A0 = 0 A3 = 0
In-phase / Pendulum mode
m
a n=2
A0 = 0 A1 a A3 = 0
A2 a
m Anti-phase / Breathing mode
 Loaded string case
-a light string supporting n equal masses m spaced at equal distance a along
its length

- The string is fixed at both ends; it has a length (n+1)a and

- a constant tension T exists at all points and all times in the string.

-Small SHO of the masses are allowed in only one plane and the problem is
to find the frequencies of the normal modes and the displacement of each
mass in a particular normal mode.
 Loaded string case
T cos1 T cos2
m
 2
T 1 T yr - yr+1
yr - yr-1 a a m
m T sin1 T sin2
yr The equation of motion of this mass may be written by
yr-1 yr+1 considering the components of the tension directed towards
the equilibrium position. The rth mass is pulled downwards
towards the equilibrium position by a force T sin1, due to
the tension on its left and a force T sin2 due to the tension
on its right.
d 2yr
Equation of motion: m 2  T (sin 1  sin
dt
2 )
 y y
  r r 1  yr  yr 1 
T  a a 
so,
d 2y T
r  yr 1  2 yr  yr 1
dt 
2
ma
 Loaded string case
We know,

-In a given mode all masses oscillate with the same mode frequency , so all yr’s have
the same time dependence.

-However, the transverse displacement yr also depends upon the value of r i.e., the
position of the rth mass on the string.

- This means that yr is a function of two independent variables, the time t and the location
of r on the string.

-If we use the separation a ≈ x and let x  0, the masses become closer and we
can consider positions along the string in terms of a continuous variable x and any
transverse displacement as y(x,t), a function of both x and t. In this case, partial
derivative notations can be used.
20
 Loaded string case
If we now locate the transverse displacement yr at a position x = xr
along the string then, we get:

 2y  2
r
y t 2  t 2
where y is evaluated at x = xr, and now, as a = x  0, (in the Continuum limit) we may write
xr = x,
xr+1 = x + x and
xr-1 = x - x

with
yr(t)  y(x,t),
yr+1 (t)  y(x + x, t) and
yr-1 (t)  y(x - x, t)

Taylor series expansion

 Loaded string case
d 2y r  yr  y r 1 yr  y r 1
m dt 2  T  
 a 
a
So, the eq. of motion becomes after the substitution: yr(t)  y(x,t),

𝑦𝑟
yr+1 (t)  y(x + x, t)

𝜕2 𝑦 𝑇 𝑦𝑟+
= − −𝑟−1
�
yr-1 (t)  y(x - x, t)

−
𝜕𝑡𝑦2 1 � 𝑦𝑎
𝑚
�

�𝜕𝑦 1
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝜕𝑦 1
� 𝛿𝑥
2
𝛿𝑥 𝜕 2𝑦
2

=� + 𝜕𝜕𝑥
2𝑦
−
𝜕𝑥 𝛿2 2
𝜕𝑥 𝛿− 2 𝜕𝑥
𝑠 𝑥 𝑥
�
2
𝑜, 𝛿𝑥 𝑇
2
𝜕2 𝑦
�

𝑇 𝜕2 𝑦𝜕2𝑦 2 = 𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑚
𝜕𝑡2 𝜕𝑥2
=
 1 2 2
 .....
  x   x, t    (x)   x  x2
 𝛿𝑥 𝑇
2
Loaded string case 𝜕2 𝑦
𝑇 𝜕2 𝑦𝜕 2𝑦 2 = 𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑚
If we now write m =  x 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥2
=
where,  is the linear density (mass per unit length) of the 𝑚
string, the masses must  0 as x 0 to avoid infinite mass
density.
2 𝜕 𝑦 𝑇 1 𝜕2 𝑦
Thus, we have:

𝜕2 𝑦 𝜕 2𝑦 =
𝑐 𝜕𝑡
2 2
=
𝜕𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑥
�

2 2
�

𝜕𝑥2
This is the WAVE EQUATION.
T/ has the dimension of the square of the velocity, the velocity with which the waves; i.e., the phase of oscillation,
is propagated. The solution for y at any particular point along the string is always that of a harmonic oscillator.

Q: How do we know that cs is the wave velocity?

Ans: As of now we cannot say if cs is wave velocity of particle velocity or some other
velocity. Wait for it…
Wave equation and solution
 Wave equation and Solution

Wave equation
2  2 2 

t 2 c x2

Solutions

General Solution
Wave equation and Solution
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 =
𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥
𝑣 = 𝑐𝑡 + 𝑥
‘Chain rule’
 Physical significance of  = f(ct-x)
S
Disturbance: ξ = f(x,t) ξ = f(x,t)
If we photograph the wave at t=0:

x1
After a time t, the pulse has moved a distance ct
Introduce frame S’ which travels with the pulse
S S’ ξ = f(x’)

x1 ’ x’ x
ct x1 ’

x2

x1’ = x2 – ct

 In general,
Physical significance of  = f(ct+x)

wave moving to the left

x
 More on solution to Wave equation
If ξ is displacement of a SHO at position x and time t, we can express it as:   a cos(t
The bracket in  = f(ct-x) has dimension of length. )
For this function to be a sine or cosine, its argument must have dimensions of radians.

2𝜋
So, we can write the solution as :
𝜉 = 𝑎 cos( 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑) = 𝑎 cos
(𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥) �
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑐 = 𝜔 = 2𝜋ν; 𝑥
�
=𝜑
𝜆 𝜆
where,

: frequency of
oscillation

2
Recollect the question: How do we know that cs (or c) is the wave velocity?
𝜉 =𝑎 𝜋 (𝑐𝑡
cos − 𝑥)
 = f(ct-x), which satisfies the wave equation, can be written in the
�
�
form:

𝑐 =�
�
Here, � , which is nothing but the wave velocity!
 Plane wave
2
𝜉 = 𝑎 𝜋 (𝑐𝑡
�
cos − 𝑥)
� the x-axis. y and z are not part of the equation because the wave's magnitude and
x is a point along
phase are the same at every point on any given y-z plane. This equation defines what that magnitude
and phase are.

Q: Here, what is a plane composed of?

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plane_Wave_3D_Animation_300x216_255Colors.gif
 2 2
More on solution to Wave equation c  ; x

For 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆 the pattern



𝜆: repeats
 

Wavelength
2
𝑘 𝜋 :
�
= Wavenumbe
r
The number
� of wavelengths that exist over a specified distance

2𝜋𝑐
Other important relations For monochromatic wave in a non-dispersive
=𝜔= 𝜔
� 2𝜋𝜈
medium  What is dispersion?
= 𝑘𝑐
Wait for it…

𝑐 =
�  Plot of dispersion
𝜈𝜆
c: wave velocity
relation
Slope (c)  phase velocity
 1
  : period of oscillation of
c  the wave
k
Standing Waves
 Standing waves on a Stretched string

l
Boundary conditions

𝑥 = 0, 𝜓 = 0 ⇒ 𝐴
+𝐵=0

𝜓 = −𝐴2𝑖 exp sin

𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑥
 Standing waves on a Stretched string
𝜓 = −𝐴2𝑖 exp 𝑖𝜔𝑡
sin 𝑘𝑥

𝑛𝜋
(n-1) nodes between boundaries

𝜓 = −𝐴2𝑖 exp 𝑥�
𝑖𝜔𝑡 sin
(kl = nπ)
�
 Wave in Time and Space Frames

These are Progressive Wave

𝜓 = −𝐴2𝑖 exp 𝑖𝜔𝑡

sin 𝑘𝑥
This is standing wave

Visualize a Progressive wave at a given point in SPACE

t
 Wave in Time and Space Frames

Visualize a Progressive wave at a given point in TIME

x
𝜆 2𝜋𝜆
𝑐 = =