Why do cells divide?

1: DNA Overload
If cells grow without limit, an “information crisis”
would develop
DNA cannot serve the needs of the increasing size of
cell
2: Exchange of materials
Food and oxygen have to cross membrane very
quickly
Waste must get out
If cell is too large, this occurs too slowly and cell will
die
Kinetochore- is a protein structure. It
forms at the centromere of every
chromosome. Its main function is to bind
microtubules of the spindle so that during
metaphase the chromosomes would be able to
properly align at the metaphase plate prior to
anaphase, which is the pulling
of chromosomes toward opposite poles of
the cell.
Cell plate
a disc like structure in
the plane of the equator of
the spindle that separates the two
sets
of chromosomes during cytokinesi
s; also involved in
the formation of cell wall between
the two daughter cells
following cell division.
Cell Division:

-process by which a cell divides to

form two new cells (daughter cells)
Three types of cell division or
cell reproduction:

Prokaryotes (bacteria)
Binary fission divides forming two new identical
cells

Eukaryotes
Mitosis
Cell or organism growth
Replacement or repair of damaged cells
Meiosis
formation of sex cells, or gametes
 Binary fission
◦ 3 main steps:
1: DNA Replication—DNA is copied,
resulting in 2
identical chromosomes
2: Chromosome Segregation—2
chromosomes separate,
move towards ends (poles) of cell
3: Cytokinesis—cytoplasm divides,
forming 2 cells
◦ Each new daughter cell is
genetically identical to parent cell
In eukaryotes, cell division occurs in two
major stages.

• The first stage, division of the

cell nucleus, is called mitosis or
meiosis.

• The second stage, division of the

cell cytoplasm, is called
cytokinesis.
Checkpoints

-these are found in the

different stages of cell
division. It monitors cell
division and ensuring its
smooth process.
 Regulatory proteins called cyclins control the
cell cycle at checkpoints:
 G1 Checkpoint—decides whether or not cell

will divide
 S Checkpoint—determines if DNA has been

properly replicated
 Mitotic Spindle Checkpoint—ensures

chromosomes are aligned at mitotic plate

Cell Cycle
Interphase: period of growth
and DNA replication between
cell divisions
G1 Phase
cell increases in size
Cell synthesizes mRNA and
proteins, which are needed for
chromosome replication.

G1 DNA damage checkpoint

-evaluates the DNA’s integrity
Damaged DNA results in the
accumulation of p53 proteins that
can trigger either cell cycle arrest
or apoptosis.
p53 proteins (TP53) are
tumor suppressing proteins
that help in regulating the
cell cycle.

Apoptosis process of
programmed cell death
Restriction checkpoint
-evaluates the cell’s capability to
undergo cell division.

 Go– cells are in either quiescent (dormant)

or senescent (aging or deteriorating)

 Quiescent cells- may go back to cell

division with the proper stimulus

 Senescent cells is due to the damaged

DNA
Replication of chromosomes
 Now two strands called sister
chromatids joined by a centromere

S DNA damage checkpoints

- monitors the replication process
during the process
organelles double
new cytoplasm forms
All other structures needed for mitosis
form
G DNA damage checkpoint
2

-checks activities in G2 to ensure its

proper flow.
Unreplicated DNA checkpoints

-ensures that DNA synthesis is complete

before proceeding to mitosis.
M phase
 Process that divides cell nucleus
to produce two new nuclei each
with a complete set of
chromosomes
 Continuous process
 Four phases (PMAT)
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
1. chromosomes visible (sister chromatids)
2. centrioles migrate to the poles (only in animals)
3. nuclear membrane disappears
4. spindle forms
1. chromosomes line up on the equator of the cell
2. spindles attach to centromeres

Equator
Spindle Assembly Checkpoint
-guarantees the proper alignment of
the chromosomes at the metaphase plate.
This prevents the untimely onset of
anaphase
1. sister chromatids separate
2. centromeres divide
3. sister chromatids move to opposite poles
 Anaphase A- kinetochore
microtubules of the spindle fibers
separate and move the sister
chromatids toward the opposite poles.

 Anaphase B- polar microtubules

begin to elongate, while the astral
microtubules pull them on the other
side. These result in the poles moving
farther apart from each other.
1. chromosomes uncoil • now chromatin
2. nuclear membranes reform
3. spindle disappears
Chromosome segregation checkpoint
-prevents cytokinesis to start until
chromosomes are correctly separated.
-Occurs at end of Mitosis
--division of the cytoplasm to form 2 new daughter
cells
--organelles are divided
-Daughter cells are genetically identical

Cells return to interphase

MEIOSIS
Is a type of cell divison used by multicellular
organisms in the formation of reproductive cells
(gametes), such as sperm cells, egg cells and
spores.
Meiosis results in the production of daughter cells
containing half the number of chromosomes of
the parent cell. The resulting daughter with the
half daughter
The number of chromosomes
cells is calledafter
that are produced haploid
cell.
meiosis are not alike because of the manner the
chromosomes divide.
There are four daughter cells produced after one
meiotic process because the cell divides twice in
meiosis.
Meiosis
is the process by which ”gametes” (sex cells) ,
with half the number of chromosomes, are
produced.
During Meiosis diploid cells are reduced to
haploid cells

Diploid (2n)  Haploid (n)

If Meiosis did not occur the chromosome

number in each new generation would
double…. The offspring would die.
Meiosis I (Reductional
division)
-halves the number of chromosomes
from diploid to haploid number.

MeiosisII (Equational
division)
-sister chromatids separate
Meiosis
Meiosis is Two cell divisions
(called meiosis I and meiosis II)
II
with only one duplication of chromosomes.
 Homologous
Chromosomes
Pair of chromosomes (maternal and


paternal)
paternal that are similar in shape and size.
 Homologous pairs (tetrads) carry genes
controlling the same inherited traits.
 Each locus (position of a gene) is in the same
position on homologues.
 Humans have 23 pairs of homologous
chromosomes.

22 pairs of autosomes
1 pair of sex chromosomes
 Sex Chromosomes
The Sex Chromosomes code for the sex of the offspring.
** If the offspring has two “X” chromosomes it will be a
female.
** If the offspring has one “X” chromosome and one “Y”
chromosome it will be a male.

In Humans the “Sex

Chromosomes” are
the 23rd set

XX chromosome - female XY chromosome - male

Sex Chromosomes

“Sex Chromosomes”
…….the 23rd set

This person has 2

“X” chromosomes…
and is a female.

23
 Interphase I

 Similar to mitosis interphase.

 Chromosomes replicate (S phase).

 Each duplicated chromosome consist of

two identical sister chromatids attached
at their centromeres.
centromeres
 Centriole pairs also replicate.
 Nucleus and nucleolus visible.
Meiosis I (four phases)

Cell division that reduces the

chromosome number by one-half.
 four phases:
phases
a. prophase I
b. metaphase I
c. anaphase I
d. telophase I
 Prophase I
 Longest and most complex phase.
 90% of the meiotic process is spent in
Prophase I
 Chromosomes condense.
 Synapsis occurs: homologous chromosomes
come together to form a tetrad.
tetrad
Tetrad is two chromosomes or four
chromatids (sister and nonsister chromatids).
5 Stages of Prophase I
 Leptotene
-chromatins condense and
chromosomes appear
 Zygotene

-synapsis starts
 Synapsis- the close pairing of the

homologous chromosomes
 Synaptonemal complex- highly

organized protein that connect the two

homologous chromosomes together.
 Synaptonemal complex is speculated to
mediate the chromosome’s successful
condensation, pairing and recombination and
may play a role during cross –over.

 Pachytene stage- synapsis is complete;

crossing over can takes place.
-nonsister chromatids in the homologous
chromosomes exchange their segments. This
process increase genetic variations of an
organisms.
 Diplotene stage- synaptonemal complex
starts to dissolve and the homologous
chromosomes start to separate in a process
called terminalization.
 Terminalization- separation from the centromere
towards the ends, but strands of DNA are still
connected at the site of exchange, forming an X-
shaped structure called chiasma.
 Diakinesis- homologous chromosomes continue
to separate and the chiasmata undergo
terminalization.
-homologous chromosomes are
condensed and shortened; nucleolus and nuclear
membrane disappear.
 Prophase I - Synapsis

Homologous chromosomes

sister chromatids sister chromatids

Tetrad
During Prophase I
“Crossing Over” occurs.
Crossing Over is one of the Two major occurrences of Meiosis
(The other is Non-disjunction)

 During Crossing over segments of

nonsister chromatids break and reattach to
the other chromatid.
chromatid The Chiasmata
(chiasma) are the sites of crossing over.
over
Crossing Over
creates variation (diversity) in the offspring’s
nonsister
traits. chromatids Tetrad

chiasmata: site variation

of crossing over
Prophase I

spindle fiber centrioles

aster
fibers
 Metaphase I
 Shortest phase
 Tetrads align on the metaphase plate.
plate
 INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT OCCURS:
1. Orientation of homologous pair to poles is
random.
2. Variation
Metaphase I

OR

metaphase plate metaphase plate

Anaphase I

 Homologous chromosomes separate

and move towards the poles.
 Sister chromatids remain attached at
their centromeres.
centromeres
Anaphase I
Telophase I

 Each pole now has haploid set of

chromosomes.
chromosomes

 Cytokinesis occurs and two haploid

daughter cells are formed.
Telophase I
Interkinesis- resting period between
telophase I and prophase II.
Meiosis II

No interphase II
(or very short - no more DNA replication)
replication
 Remember: Meiosis II is similar to
mitosis
Prophase II

 same as prophase in mitosis

Metaphase II

 same as metaphase in mitosis

metaphase plate metaphase plate

Anaphase II

 same as anaphase in mitosis

 sister chromatids separate
Telophase II

 Same as telophase in mitosis.

mitosis
 Nuclei form.
 Cytokinesis occurs.
 Remember: four haploid daughter
cells produced.

gametes = sperm or egg

Telophase II
 Meiosis in males is called
spermatogenesis and
produces sperm.

Meiosis in females is called

oogenesis and produces ova.
 Spermatogenesi
s Secondary Spermatocyte n=23
human
sex cell
sperm
Primary Spermatocyte n=23
n=23

2n=46 Secondary Spermatocyte

haploid (n)
n=23
diploid (2n) n=23

4 sperm cells are

produced from each n=23
primary spermatocyte.
meiosis I meiosis II
Oogenesis

*** The polar bodies die… only one ovum

(egg) is produced from each primary oocyte.
What is a
chromosomal
mutation?
A mutation that involves the
◦ Addition
◦ Deletion
◦ Translocation
◦ Non-disjunction

Of a piece or a whole chromosomes.

 What type of mutation involves the
presence of extra chromosomes or
the deletion of chromosomes?

Nondisjunction!!!!!
Trisomy: any extra
chromosome
In trisomy cases, you end up
with 47 chromosomes instead
of 46

Klinefelter’s syndrome has

the genotype XXY
An Example of
Trisomy
 Down’s Syndrome
◦A.k.a- trisomy 21
◦Shorthand:
 47, XY or XX,
+21
 XY is male
 XX is female
◦Survival rate is
very high for this
non-disjunction!
 Edward’s Syndrome
 This karyotype demonstrates trisomy 18
 Shorthand: (47, XY, +18).
 If the genotype is XY, what is the gender of this

individual?
◦ male

- Incidence is only 1 in
8000 live births.

- It is uncommon for fetuses with

this condition to survive
Trisomy 13: Patau
Syndrome
 Shorthand: (47, XX, +13).
 Occurrence:
◦ Only 1 in 15,000 live births. (most aborted
naturally)
 Survival:
◦ Forty five percent die within the first month
◦ 90% by six months
◦ Less than 5% reach 3 years.
The not so “superman”-
Jacobs Syndrome
 What type of mutation would cause an
individual to have one less chromosome than
normal?
 NONDISJUCTION!!!
 Occurrence:
◦ 1/1000 live male births.
 Apperence:
◦ Men with this karyotype are tall and have low
mental ability.
Translocations
 A section of a
chromosome is
moved from one
chromosome to
another!
 The material is

not lost, but

inserted in a
place where it is A Robertsonian translocation of chromosomes
13 and 14, an end to end fusion of the two
non- functional chromosomes
Onto Deletions!
Cri du Chat

Cry of the Cat

individuals
sound like cats
crying.
Why?
The larynx of the
child is
improperly
developed.
Fun Facts About “The
Cat”
 The cause of this condition is a deletion of
about half of the short arm of chromosome 5.
 Cri-du-chat babies are severely mentally
retarded, round face, low set ears, heart
disease, and have a small cranium.
 Occurrence:
◦ 1/1,000,000 live births.
◦ Karyotype:
46XX or 46 XY with chromosome
#5 upper arm deletion.
The Sex-linked
Trisomies!
 Klinefelter’s
Syndrome
◦ Shorthand: 47, XXY
◦ “Supermale”

 Jacobs Syndrome
◦ Shorthand: 47, XYY
◦ The not so
“supermale”