UNIT-III

Carnot Cycle:
Thermodynamic analysis of Carnot Cycle. Applications of Carnot cycle -Heat Engine, Heat
Pump and Refrigerator.
Second Law of Thermodynamics:
Statements of Second Law of thermodynamics. Equivalence of Kelvin-Planck and Clausius
Statements. Clausius Inequality, Carnot Theorems, Thermodynamic Temperature Scale.
Concept of Entropy:
Reversible and Irreversible processes. Calculation of Entropy change during various
thermodynamic processes. Principle of Increase of Entropy. Second law analysis of a control
Volume.
Concepts of Exergy and Anergy:
Loss in available energy. Second law efficiency of Turbines and Compressors.
Draw backs (or) Limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics

1. It does not specify the direction of flow of heat and work.

2. In practice it is possible to convert complete work into heat. But only part of heat
converted to work, not fully means that the heat energy and work are not fully
mutually convertible.

3. It does not help us to predict whether the system will or will not undergo a change.
It simply states that during a process, heat and work are mutually convertible, if
system undergoes change of state.

Development of second Law of Thermodynamics

Helps to know flow direction of heat and work

Performance of Heat Engine
Entropy and Entropy change
 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The second law of thermodynamics can be stated in two statements which are given below
Kelvin-Planck Statement and
Clausius Statement.

1)Kelvin – Planck statement

It states that “ It is impossible to
construct an engine working on a
cyclic process, whose sole purpose is
to convert all the heat supplied to it
into equivalent amount of work”.

(OR)
In other words, no actual heat engine
working on a cyclic process, can
convert whole of the heat supplied to
it, into mechanical work.
 Fig shows representation of Kelvin-Planck statement

Source, T1
Source, T1

Q1 Q1

H.E H.E W=Q1- Q2

W = Q1

Heat rejected is zero Q2

Fig 1. Device violating Kelvin-plank statement Sink, T2

(PMM2)
Fig 2. Device that satisfying
A heat engine which violates this Kelvin-plank statement
statement of the second law of ( Heat Engine)
Thermodynamics (i.e., a heat engine
which convents whole of the heat energy 100 percent efficient machine which
into mechanical work) is known as is impossible to obtain in actual
perpetual motion of machine of second practice.
kind (PMM2)
 2)Clausius statement
It states that “ It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle whose sole effect
is the transfer of heat energy from a body at a lower temperature to a body at a higher
temperature”. (OR)
Another form of Clausius statement states that “ heat cannot flow from a body at low
temperature to another body at a higher temperature without the aid of external energy”.
High Temp. body, T1 High Temp. body, T1
Q1
Q1

E E W

Q2
Q2 Low temp. body,T2
Low temp. body,T2
Fig4. Device that satisfying Clausius statement
Fig 3. Device violating Clausius statement ( Heat pump)
The device in fig.3 violates the The device in fig.4 does not violate the Clausius
Clausius statement because no input statement since work is required to transfer heat
work is supplied to the device to from low temperature body to high temperature
transfer heat from a cold body to a hot body. This device is called heat pump or
body. refrigerator.
 Equivalence of Clausius statement to the Kelvin-Plank Statement
A violation of Clausius statement leads to a violation of Kelvin-Plank statement.
From the figure(a) consider a system of H.E.and a H.P.
operating between two thermal reservoirs at higher
temperature reservoir T1 and lower temperature reservoir T2
( T1˃T2) Heat pump draws Q2 quantity of heat from a lower
temperature reservoir and supplies Q1 quantity of heat to a
high temperature reservoir " Un aided ". i.e. heat pump seems
to operate this way without taking in work from external
agency which is a clear violation of the Clausius statement.
The Heat Engine operating between same temperature limits
draws Q1 quantity of heat from hot source and rejects Q 2
quantity of heat to cold sink (Q1 ˃Q2), Thus producing a net
work of W= Q1-Q2. The sink , in such case, may be
eliminated as there no heat interaction with it. Then , the
combined system with in the boundary , act like a self acting
heat engine( Figure (b) exchanging heat with only one
reservoir, which is violation of Kelvin-Plank statement.
It is shown that, violation of one statement of Second law
of TD leads to violation of the other. Thus , the two
statements of the Second law are equivalent to each other.
 Reversible Process
A reversible process should fulfill the following conditions
1)The process should not involve friction of any kind
2)Heat transfer should not takes place with finite temperature difference
3) The transfer as heat and work during the forward process should be identically equal to
energy transfer as heat and work during the reversal of the process.
4)There should be no free or unrestricted expansion
5) There should be no mixing of fluids
6)The process must proceed in a series of equilibrium states.
Some example of ideal reversible process
(i) Frictionless adiabatic expansion or compression
(ii)Frictionless isothermal expansion or compression
(iii) Condensation and Evaporation of liquid
Some example of ideal irreversible process
(i) Combustion process (ii) Mixing of two fluids (iii) All process involving friction
(iv) Flow of electric current through a resistance ( v) heat flow from higher temperature to a
lower temperature.
*In thermodynamic analysis concept of reversibility, though hypothetical, is very important
because a reversible process is the most efficient process.
**Reversible process of working fluid delivers more workout than the irreversible process.
***The main task of engineer is to design the system which will evolve approximate
reversible process.
 Carnot Cycle
Carnot cycle is devised by Nicolas sadi Carnot in 1824
Carnot cycle is purely Hypothetical reversible cycle it is practically impossible.
It works on two temperature limits i.e., T 1 and T2
Reversible cycle means, the sequences of
processes are such that , the air returns to its
original state.
It can be used to design heat pumps and refrigerators.
The working substance must be at same temperature during absorption and rejection
Their must be no friction during compression and expansion of working substance.

P-V, diagram of carnot cycle T-S diagram of Carnot cycle

 Sequence of operations
1-2 Isothermal expansion : Air receives heat from source at constant temperature T h and
expands
2-3 Adiabatic Expansion : Air expands further isentropically. No heat transfer takes place.
Temperature decreases to T3.
3-4 Isothermal Compression : Air rejects heat to sink at constant temperature T c, and gets
compressed.
4-1 Adiabatic Compression : Air is further compressed adiabatically at the expense of
internal energy.
Analysis Of Cycle
Assumption made about cycle
The working substance must, at any instant, be at the same temperature as that of hot
( source )while heat is being absorbed.
The working fluid must at any instant, be at the same temperature as that of cold body
(sink) while heat is being rejected
There must be no ‘free’ or imperfectly resisted expansions and compressions
Carnot cycle satisfies all these conditions, and hence it is a reversible cycle.
Reversible Carnot cycle (1-2- 3- 4-1) is applied to heat pumps and refrigerators.
1) Process 1-2, (Heat added during isothermal Expansion )
Heat transferred = work done
Q1-2 = QS = W 1-2

-------(1)

2) Process 2-3, (No heat flow)

Q2 – 3 = 0
3) Process 3-4 ( Heat is rejected during Isothermal compression)
Heat transferred = work done
Q3-4 = QR = W3-4

= = RTc loge r -------(2)

where r = V3 / V4 (Ratio of isothermal compression)

4) Process 4-1 (No heat flow)

Q4– 1 = 0;
Work done =Heat supplied-Heat rejected i.e W=QS-QR

-------(3)

Efficiency=

Considering adiabatic expansion 2-3

-----(a)

Considering adiabatic compression 4-1 -----(b)

from eqn.(a) and eqn (b)

 From eqn (1) and (3)

OR

Limitations
No actual engine will operate on Carnot cycle practically
P-V diagram is very narrow
In Carnot cycle the piston should move very slowly in isothermal process and very fast
in adiabatic process which is not practicable.
 i)Heat Engine:
A heat engine is a machine used to convert heat
energy into mechanical work in a cyclic Source, T1
process.
The performance of the cycle is represented by Q1
the term Thermal Efficiency (  th) and may be
expressed by the equation.
H.E W=Q1- Q2
Work Done
Thermal Efficiency (  )=
th
Heat supplied Q2

Sink, T2

Fig 2. Device that satisfying

Kelvin-plank statement
( Heat Engine)
OR

Where Q1=heat supplied and Q2=heat rejected

 ii) Refrigerator
 Refrigerator is used to maintain low iii) Heat Pump
Heat pump is used to maintain high
temperature and is used for cooling.
temperature and is used for heating
In a refrigerating machine heat is extracted at
There is no difference between the
lower temperature(Tc) and reject it to
cycle of operation of the heat pump
surroundings at ambient temperature(T h)
and refrigerator and achieve the same
The performance of heat pump or overall objective, but the basic
refrigerator is measured in terms of coefficient purpose of each is quite different.
of performance ( COP). Th HS
Th HS
Th = Ambient temp.
Heating. Heating.
Qh = Heat taken from
Tc = Temp. of sink source
Qh Qh
Qc = Heat rejected
Qc
COP = Win R Win HP Win

Qc
Qc

Cooling Cooling
Tc SK Tc SK
 Problem 1:
An engine produces 10kJ as work while 80kJ enters the engine cycle as heat .
Determine the energy rejected and the thermal efficiency of cycle
Solution: Given Data:
Work output ( wout ) = 10kJ, Heat input (Qin ) =80kJ
Heat rejected (Qout) =? Thermal efficiency =?
We know that Wout =Qin – Qout Qout =80 - 10 = 70kJ
Thermal efficiency =(Qin- Qout)/ Qin
ƞTh =(80-70)/80=0.125 =12.5%
__________________________________________________________________________
Problem 2:A Carnot cycle operates between 9000C and 1000C. Determine the efficiency of
cycle, the heat rejected and the useful work out put, if 100kJ enters the cycle as heat
Solution : Given data
Upper temperature, T1 = 9000C = 1173 K
Lower temperature, T2 = 1000C = 373 K
Heat input Q1 = 100kJ
Efficiency of Carnot cycle,
carnot = (T1-T2)/T1 = (1173-373)/ 1173 = 0.682 = 68.2%
Work out put = efficiency x Heat input = 0.682 x 100 kJ = 68.2 kJ
Heat rejected = heat input – work out put = 100 – 68.2 = 31.8kJ
 Problem 3:
A Carnot engine develops 17 h.p while receiving 100 MJ per hour and rejects heat to a
receiver at 200C.
Determine the upper temperature of the cycle and its efficiency.
Solution: Given data:
Work output of engine, W = 17 h.p = 17x0.746 = 12.682kJ/s = 12.682 kW
Heat input to engine, Qin = 100MJ/hr = (100 x 106)/ 3600
= 27.78kJ/s = 27.78 kW
Lower temperature, T2 = 200C = 293 K
Efficiency of Carnot cycle =12.682/27.78= 0.45

carnot = (T1-T2)/T1
0.45 = 1- (T2/T1)

T2/T1 = 1- 0.45 = 0.55

T1 = T2/0.55 = 293/0.55 = 532 K = 2590C

 Problem 4 :
The high temperature of a Carnot cycle is 400 0C and the cycle has an
efficiency of 55% .The volume ratio of expansion of the isothermal process is
2.8. Determine:
(a) The low temperature of the cycle
(b) The adiabatic volume ratio
(c) The overall volume expansion ratio . Take  =1.4

Solution : Given Data Upper temperature T 1 =400+273 =673 K

Efficiency  =0.55
Compression ratio (r) =2.8
Adiabatic ratio  =1.4
Expansion ratio (r) =Vb/ Va =2.8
(a) Low temperature = 1- (T2 /T1 ) 0.55 = 1- (T2 / T1 )
0.45 = T2/673
T2 =673x0.45 =303 k
b) Volume ratio
T2 =300C
Adiabatic expansion ratio =( T 1 / T 2 )1/r-1 =( T / T )1/r-1 = (673/303)1/1.4-1 =7.343
1 2
c) Overall expansion ratio : Vc/Va= (Vb/Va) X (Vc/Vb)= 7.343 x2.8 =20.44
 Problem 5:
A Carnot engine is operating between two reservoirs at temperature 750 0C and 350C
.If the engine receives 220 KJ of heat from the source , Calculate the heat rejected,
efficiency and work done.
Solution: Given Data: Upper temperature (T1) = 750oC =1023 K
Lower temperature (T2) =350C =308K
Heat receiving (Q1) =220KJ
Heat rejected (Q2) = ?
Efficiency (  ) =?
 =1- (T2/T1)

=1- (308/1023) =1-0.3010

=0.699
=69.9%

QIN =WOUT + QOUT

 = WOUT / QIN
WOUT =  X QIN
=0.699*220
WOUT =153.78 KJ
 Problem 6:
An engineer claims his engine to develop 3.7KW . On testing the engine 0.44Kg of
fuel/hour having a calorific value 42000kJ/Kg . The maximum temperature
recorded in the cycle is 1400 0C and the minimum is 7500C . Find whether the
engineer justified in his claim .
Solution: Given data:
Engine work output = 3.7 KW = 3.7 KJ/s
Fuel consumed = 0.44 Kg/h
Colorific value = 42000 KJ/Kg
upper temperature = 14000C =1673 K
lower temperature = 7500C = 1023 K
Find whether engineer claim justified or not
Heat evolved =0.44X42000 =18480 kJ/h =5.13 kJ/s

Efficiency of ASC (  ) =1- (T2) /T1 = 1- (1023/1673)

=1-0.6114 = 38.86%

Actual efficiency of engine =W OUT / Q IN

=3.7 KJ / 5.13 KJ =72.12%
 Problem 7:
Calculate the volume expansion ratios for the isothermal and isentropic processes
of a Carnot cycle operating between source and sink temperatures of 400 0C
and 150C respectively . If the overall volume expansion ratio is 20 .

Solution: Given data:

Upper temperature of cycle =4000C =673 K
Lower temperature of cycle = 150 C =288 K
Overall expansion ratio = 20
Efficiency of ASC carnot = 1- (T2/ T ) = 1-(288/673) =0.58 =58%

Adiabatic expansion ratio B to C

TI /T2 =(VC/VB)-1
673/288= (VC/VB)0.4
2.33 = (VC/VB)0.4
VC/VB = 8.36
Isothermal expansion ratio = Overall expansion ratio
adiabatic expansion ratio

Isothermal expansion ratio =20/8.33 = 2.39

Example 8:
A heat engine is supplied with 6960 kJ/min of heat and develops an output of 50 kW.
Find out thermal efficiency & heat rejected.
Solution: Given data:
Heat supplied =Qs=6960 kJ/min=116 kJ/sec.
Work done = W=50 kW=50 kJ/sec.
workdone W
 
heat sup plied Qs
50
 0.4310
116
  43.10%

We also know that

Q s  Qr
 
Qs
whereQr heatrejected
116  Qr
0.431 
116
0.431116 116  Qr
Qr  66kJ / sec .
 Problem.9
Find the COP of a refrigerating system if the work input is 250 kJ/kg
and refrigerating effect produced is 400 kJ/kg.Also find the COP of
heat pump.
Solution Given data,
Work input, W = 250 kJ/kg
Refrigerating effect, N = 400 kJ/kg
N
COP =
W
= 400 / 250 = 1.6

COP of heat pump ?

 Problem 10:
A reversed refrigeration cycle requires 6.2kW work , between temperature limits of 34 0c
and -100c. Determine the refrigeration effect in the sink.
Solution
Given data: T2 = -100c = 263 K T1 = 340c = 307 K Power input to the plant = 6.2kW
263
COP refrigeration cycle = = (307  263 )
= 5.977

Refrigeration effect
COP =
Work done

Refrigeration effect = Work done x COP

= 6.2 x 5.977
= 37.06 kW

Refrigeration effect in the sink = 37.06 kW

 Problem 11:
A reversed refrigerator cycle has COP for cooling is 4. Determine the temperature ratio

Solution
Given data, T1
COP= 4 COP = = 4
(T2  T1 )

T2 - T1 1
=
T1 4

Temperature ratio , T2 5
=
T1 4

Problem 12:
A reversible engine receives heat from two constant temperature sources at 870K and 580K.
It rejects 3000kJ/min to sink at 290K. The engine develops 85kW.Determine the heat
supplied by each source and efficiency of the engine.
 Carnot's Theorem
"It states that of all engines operating between a given constant temperature source and a
given constant temperature sink, none has a higher efficiency than reversible engine"
Let, HEA and HEB are the two engines operating
between the given source at temperature T 1 and the
given sink at temperature T2 . As shown in Fig.1.
Let HEA be any heat engine and HEB be any
reversible heat engine. We have to prove that
efficiency of HEB is more than that of HEA.
Let us assume that ƞA ˃ ƞB.
Let the rates of working of the engines be such that.
Q1A = Q1B =Q1
Fig.1.Heat engines HEA and HEB operating
Since ƞA ˃ ƞ B ,
between the same source and sink, of which
WA ˃ WB HEB is reversible
 Corollary of Carnot's Theorem
" The efficiency of all reversible heat engines operating between the same temperature
levels is the same".
Let both heat engine HEA and HEB reversible As shown in Fig.1.

ƞA = ƞ B

Since the efficiencies of all reversible heat engine operating between the same heat
reservoirs are the same.

The efficiency of a reversible engine is independent of the nature or amount of the working
substance undergoing the cycle.

Clausius'sTheorem
The Cyclic integral of dQ/T for a
reversible cycle is equal to zero.
This is known as Clausius'
Theorm.
 Clausius Inequality
Consider an engine operating between two fixed temperature reservoirs T H and TL
Let dQH units of heat supplied at temperature T H and dQL1 units of heat to be rejected at
temperature TL for reversible engine and
dQH units of heat supplied at temperature T H and dQL2 units of heat to be rejected at
temperature TL for Irreversible engine.
As per the Carnot theorem , ƞI ≤ ƞR OR
No engine can be more efficient than a reversible engine ( Carnot's theorem)

As per Clausius Inequality

For reversible engine

------- (a)

For Irreversible engine work output is less ,because

and

OR
 ------- (b)

From eqn.(a) and (b)

Where, the equality applies in case of reversible cycle and inequality applies in case of
irreversible cycle.
Thus , Clausius Inequality is defined as followes.
Whenever a system executes a complete cycle, the cyclic integral, ( ) is less than
or equal to Zero

If (the cycle is reversible)

If (the cycle is irreversible and possible)

If (the cycle is impossible and violates the second law)

 Thermodynamic Temperature Scale
Take the case of reversible heat engine operating between two revervoirs. The thermal
efficiency is given by

The temperatures of a reservoir remains uniform and fixed irrespective of heat transfer. This
means that reservoir has only one property defining its state and the heat transfer from a
reservoir is same function of the property, temperature. Thus Q=ɸ(K), where K is the
temperature of reservoir .The choice of the function is universally accepted to be such that
the relation.

"The ratio of the temperature magnitudes assigned to source and sink equal the ratio
of energy supplied by source to the energy rejected to the sink".
Where T1 and T2 are the thermodynamic temperatures of the reservoirs. Zero
thermodynamic temperature ( that temperature to which T 2 tends, as the heat transfer Q2
tends to zero) has never been attained and one form of the third law of thermodynamics is
the statement)
"The temperature of a system cannot be reduced to zero in a finite number of processes"
After establishing the concept of a zero thermodynamic temperature, a reference reservoir is
chosen and assigned a numerical value of temperature. Any other thermodynamic temperature
may now be defined in terms of reference value and the heat transfer that would occur with
reversible engine.

The determination of thermodynamic temperature cannot be made in this way as it is not

possible to build a reversible engine. Temperatures are determined by the application of
thermodynamic relations to other measurements.
The SI unit of thermodynamic temperature is the Kelvin (K).

The relation between thermodynamic temperature and Celsius scale, which is in common use
is :
Thermodynamic temperature = Celsius temperature + 273.15°C
The Kelvin unit of thermodynamic temperature is the function of 1/ 273.15 of
thermodynamic temperature of " Triple point" of water.
Thermodynamic Temperature Scale